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I 

HARVEY'S    ELEMENTARY   GRAMMAR. 


AN 


ELEMENTARY  GRAMMAR 


OF  THE 


ENGLISH  IaNGJjJ^E, 

FOR  THE 

USE  OF  SCHOOLS.  ^ 


LISH  LANGUAGE.' 


VAN  ANTWEKP,  BRAGG  &  CO., 

CINCINlsr  ATI:  NEAV    YORK 

137  WALNUT  ST.  S8  BOND  ST. 


Harvey's  Language  Course. 

REVISED,  TWO  BOOK  SERIES. 

/.  Harvey's  Revised  Elementary  Grammar  and  Composiiion. 
II.  Harvey's  Revised  English  Grammar. 


The  best  and  most  practical  course  In  Oral  and 
VITrltten  I«ang:uas:e  I^essons,  Composition,  and  Bng:- 
lisli  Grammar.  Xhe  Golden  Mean  bet^veen  tbe  too 
labored  attempt  at  simplification,  and  tbe  scientific 
technical  grrammar. 

"  Athorq^h  knowledge  of  the  elements,  forms,  structure,  and  laws 
of  our  moarer-tongue  can  only  iJi  acquired  by  patient,  persistent 
exercise  in  the  analysis  and  synthesis  of  words,  phrases,  and  sen- 
tences. The  labor  necessary  for  the  acquirement  of  this  knowledge, 
as  well  as  accuracy  and  facility  in  the  use  of  our  language,  may  be 
*  made  attrac^ve,  but  it  can  not  be  dispensed  with," 

It  is  claimed  for  Harvey's  Language  Course  that  it  shows  how  this 
labor  s^^  be  expended  to  secure  th^/H^t  results. 

I.  Necessary  instruction  is  given  in  simple  yet  concise 
form,  thus  economizing  the  time  and  energies  of  both  pupil 
and  |eacher. 


2.  M^el  Oral  Lessons,  which  first  appeared  as  a  special 
feature  idWARVEY'S  ELEMENTARY  GRAMMAR,  and 
^ave  proven  so  popular,  are  here  presented  in  an  improved 
and  sugge^ve  form. 

3.  Sentence-making  and  Composition  are  presented  in  a 
natural  andfattractive  manner. 

4.  Pictorial  Illustrations  are  employed  in  teaching  Com- 
position. 

5.  Special  attention  is  given  to  exercises  in  False  Syntax, 
care  being  taken  to  include  the  common  errors  of  speech. 

6.  Diagrams  for  "mapping"  sentences  are  given  early 
in  the  course,  with  Models  for  Analysis. 

7.  The  higher  book  contains  an  exhaustive  presentation 
of  the  properties  and  modifications  of  the  different  Parts  of 
Speech ;  also  carefully  prepared  Models  for  Parsing  and  An- 
alysis ;  rules  of  Syntax  and  schemes  for  the  description  of 
objects. 


Entered  acoording  to  Act  of  Conftress,  in  the  vear  1«69,  by  Wilson.  Hinklb  &  Co..  in  the  Clerk's 
Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  for  the  Southern  District  of  Ohio. 


PREFACE 


In  the  preparation  of  this  work,  the  aim  of  the  author  has 
been  to  present  the  subject  in  a  style  neither  too  difficult  for 
the  beginner  nor  too  simple  for  the  more  advanced  student. 
As  its  name  indicates,  this  is  an  ^elementary,  not  a  liriniarij 
grammar. 

Part  I  consists  of  model  oral  lessons,  illustrating  methods 
of  elementary  instruction  in  language  culture.  These  need 
not  be  given  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  arranged;  and, 
if  it  be  found  necessary  or  desirable,  they  ijjay  be  varied  or 
subdivided  to  adapt  them  to  the  wants  and  capacity  of  the 
pupil.  With  these  as  models,  any  ingenious  teacher  can 
readily  prepare  similar  lessons  to  simplify  or  elucidate  the 
more  difficult  sections  in  Parts  II  and  III. 

Part  II  is  similar  to  Part  I  in  spirit  and  design.  The 
topics,  however,  are  more  systematically  arranged  and  devel- 
oped. Great  care  has  been  taken  never  to  define  a  term  or 
to  enunciate  a  principle  without  first  preparing  the  mind  of 
the  pupil  to  grasp  and  comprehend  the  meaning  and  use  of 
the  terms  defined  or  the  principles  enunciated-  Ideas  are  first 
developed  by  intelligent  questioning  and  appropriate  illustra- 
tions; then,  clothed  in  words.  The  examples  in  the  drill  ex- 
ercises have  been  chosen  with  great  care. 

Part  III  contains  a  concise  yet  exhaustive  statement  of  the 
properties  or  modifications  of  the  different  parts  of  speech; 

(iii) 


IV  PREFACE. 

carefully  prepared  models  for  parsing  and  the  analysis  of  com- 
plex and  compound  sentences  —  making,  with  the  analysis 
taught  in  Part  II,  a  complete  and  perfect  system;  rules  of 
syntax,  and  cautions,  with  appropriate  exercises  in  false  syn- 
tax. Notes,  remarks,  and  suggestions  have  been  but  sparingly 
introduced,  as  they  serve  rather  to  confuse  than  to  assist  the 
beginner. 

The  author  would  call  special  attention  to  the  synthetic 
exercises  in  Part  II,  and  the  exercises  in  false  syntax  in 
Part  III.  No  thoughtful  teacher  will  neglect  or  give  undue 
prominence  to  either  class  of  exercises.  Grammatical  instruc- 
tion is  of  little  value  unless  its  aim  and  end  is  to  teach  the 
pupil  to  detect  and  correct  inaccuracies  in  the  use  of  lan- 
guage, as  well  as  to  give  forcible,  elegant  expression  to 
thought. 

It  has  been  said  that  there  is  no  royal  road  to  geometry. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  grammar.  The  meaning  and  appli- 
cation of  its  technical  terms  must  be  learned,  sentences  must 
be  analyzed,  words  must  be  parsed,  before  the  student  can 
comprehend  the  philosophy  which  underlies  the  correct  use 
of  any  language.  The  labor  necessary  to  acquire  this  knowl- 
edge may  be  made  attractive,  but  it  can  not  be  dispensed  with, 
neither  can  it  be  materially  lessened.  All  that  is  claimed  for 
this  work  is,  that  it  shows  how  this  labor  should  be  expended 
to  secure  the  best  results. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 

Names  of  Things, 
Teaching  new  Words, 
Action-words, 
Quality-words,    . 
Sentence-making, 
Things  seen  in  Pictures, 
Word-picturing, 
Mispronounced  Words, 
Incorrect  Expressions, 
Classes  of  Sentences, 

PART  II 

The  Senses,  . 
Definition  of  Object, 
"    Word, 
Language,     . 
Parts  of  Speech, 
The  Noun,    . 
The  Sentence, 
Parts  of  a  Sentence,  . 
The  Noun  as  Predicate, 
Elements, 
The  Verb,     . 
Classes  of  Verbs, 
Objective  Element,     . 
The  Adjective,     . 

"    Article, 

"    Participle,    . 

"    Adjective  Element, 

"    Pronoun,     . 


PAOK. 
7 
9 
10 
11 
12 
14 
17 


Personal  Pronouns,  . 
Possessive        " 
Relative  " 

Complex  Sentence, 
Relative  Clause, 
Interrogative  Pronouns, 
The  Adverb, 

"    Adverbial  Element, 

"    Preposition, 

"    Phrase, 

"    Conjunction, 
Compound  Element, 
The  Interjection, 
Classes  of  Sentences, 
Principal  Elements,  . 
Subordinate  Elements, 

PART  III 

The  Noun,    . 

Gender,     . 

Person,      . 

Number,   . 

Case, 

Declension, 

Parsing,    . 
The  Pronoun,     . 

Personal  Pronouns, 

Possessive         " 

Relative  " 

Interrogative  " 

f 


PAOB. 
.  46 
.      48 

50 
.  51 
.  51 
.  53 
.  55 
.      55 

57 


VI 

CONTENTS. 

page. 

PAGE. 

False  Syutax,  Caution3, 

87 

Grammatical  Subject,     . 

132 

The  Adjective, 

90 

Logical  Subject, 

132 

Comparison, 

90 

Grammatical  Predicate, 

133 

Descriptive  Adjectives,       , 

90 

Logical  Predicate,    . 

133 

Definitive 

91 
93 

Ellipsis, 

V.3 

False  Syntax,  Cautions, 

Abridgment,       .... 

.      134 

The  Verb,  .       =       .       .       , 

95 

Rules  of  Syntax, 

136 

Voice, 

95 

Miscellaneous  Exercises, 
Questions  for  Review,     . 

140 

Mode 

■      96 

143 

Tense,      ..... 

98 

Person  and  Number,  . 

100 

PART   IV. 

Auxiliaries,    .... 

101 

Punctuation,     .... 

.      146 

Unipersonal  Verbs,     . 

101 

The  Comma, 

.      H6 

Conjugation, 

101 

"    Semicolon,     . 

.      148 

Coordinate  Forms, 

109 

'     Colon,    .... 

.       149 

Regular  Verbs,     . 

111 

"    Period 

.       149 

Irregular  Verbs,  . 

112 

"    Interrogation  Point, 

.     i.'-.o 

Defective  and  Redundant  Verb 

8,    115 

"    Exclamation  Point,  . 

.      150 

False  Syntax,  Cautions,    . 

118 

"    Dash,      .... 

.       150 

The  Adverb,      .... 

120 

"    Brackets,      . 

.       151 

Comparison,  .... 
False  Syntax,  Cautions, 

.      121 
123 

Other  Marks,     .... 

.       151 

The  Preposition,      . 

123 

PART  V. 

The  Conjunction,     . 

125 

Elementary  Sounds, 

.       154 

The  Interjection,   . 

127 

Table  of  Sounds, 

.      155 

Simple  Sentence. 

128 

Letters 

.      156 

Compound  Sentence, 

129 

Capital  Letters, 

.       156 

Complex  Sentences, 

130 

Syllabus- Words.    .        .        . 

.      159 

ELEMENTARY  GRAMMAR. 


PART   I. 
ORAL  LESSONS. 

To  Teachers.  —  The  lessons  in  Part  I  are  intended  to  pre- 
cede the  use  of  a  book  in  grammatical  instruction.  That  they 
may  be  useful,  as  well  as  animated  and  attractive,  observe  the 
following  directions: 

1.  Require  prompt  answers,  always  expressed  in  complete 
sentences. 

2.  Require  pupils  to  copy  on  their  slates  whatever  you  write 
on  the  blackboard. 

3.  Correct  with  great  care  all  errors  in  pronunciation,  spelling, 
punctuation,  and  the  use  of  capital  letters. 

LESSON   I. 

1.  Names  of  Things. 

Teacher  {taking  a  book  from  his  desk). — What  is  this? 
Pupils. — That  is  a  book. 

The  teacher  writes  this  answer  on  the  blackboard :  the  pupils 
copy  it  on  their  slates. 

T.  [Pointing  to  the  word  "book*'). — Is  that  a  book? 
P. — No :  that  is  a  word. 

T. — That  is  right.  It  is  a  word  used  as  the  name  of  a  thing. 
Mary,  you  may  bring  me  a  book.    James,  you  may  point  to 

(7) 


8  ELEMENTARY   GRAMMAR. 

the  word  "book".    Now,  observe  that  Mary  has  brought  me 
a  thing  we  call  a  book,  and  James  has  pointed  to  its  name. 

Call  the  attention  of  your  pupils,  in  a  similar  manner,  to  an 
mkstand,  a  pen,  a  bell,  a  crayon,  a  pencil,  a  slate,  a  nUer. 

T. — Write  these  names  on  your  slates,  in  columns,  as  1 
write  them  on  the  blackboard : 

Book.  Crayon. 

Inkstand.  Pencil. 

Pen.  Slate. 

Bell.  Ruler. 

T. — With  what  does  each  word  commence  ? 
P. — Each  word  commences  with  a  capital  letter. 
T. — What  is  placed  after  each  word  ? 
P. — A  period  is  placed  after  each  word. 
T. — What  are  these  words? 
p. — They  are  names  of  things. 

Write,  in  columns,  the  names  of  all  objects  in  the  school-room. 
Let  the  pupils  give  the  names  of  objects  in  the  kitchen  —  in  the 
sitting-room  —  in  the  parlor — also,  the  names  of  objects  seen  on 
their  way  to  school. 

Write  six  names  of  things  that  may  be  known  by  the  sense  of  sight. 
Write  six  names  of  things  that  may  be  knovm  by  the  sense  of  hearing. 
Write  six  names  of  things  that  may  be  known  by  the  sense  of  touch. 
Write  six  names  of  things  that  may  be  known  by  the  sense  of  taste. 
Write  six  names  of  things  that  may  be  known  by  the  sense  of  smell. 

Talk  with  your  pupils  about  the  things  whose  names  are  given. 
Encourage  them  to  tell  what  they  know  of  their  uses — of  the 
places  where  they  are  found,  etc.  Let  them  write  sentences  like 
these:  "Pepper  grows  in  the  East  Indies."  "Oranges  grow  in 
Florida."  "Quinine  has  a  bitter  taste."  "I  heard  an  owl  hoot." 
Pay  particular  attention  to  the  spelling  of  these  sentences.  See 
that  every  word  is  correctly  spelled ;  that  each  sentence  and  every 
proper  name  begins  with  a  capital  letter,  and  that  a  period  is 
placed  at  the  end  of  each  sentence. 


ORAL    LESSONS.  9 

Eemember  that  the  object  of  these  lessons  is  not  to  give  in- 
struction in  matters  of  science,  but  to  lead  pupils  to  observe  things, 
and  to  teach  them  how  to  express  their  thoughts  in  correct 
language. 

LESSON   II. 

•Teacher. — We  have  written  the  names  of  five  kinds  of 
things.  One  kind  we  know  by  the  sense  of  sight ;  another,  by 
the  sense  of  touch  or  feeling ;  another,  by  the  sense  of  hearing ; 
another,  by  the  sense  of  taste ;  another,  by  the  sense  of  smell. 
Seeing,  feeling,  hearing,  tasting,  and  smelling  are  called  the  five 
senses.     What  are  the  five  senses? 

Pupils. — The  five  senses  are  seeing,  feeling,  hearing,  tasting, 
and  smelling. 

T. — Any  thing  which  we  can  see,  feel,  hear,  taste,  or  smell 
is  called  matter.     What  is  matter? 

P. — Matter  is  any  thing  that  we  can  see,  feel,  hear,  taste, 
or  smell. 

T. — Write  this  on  your  slates.  Now  repeat  it  in  concert. 
Those  things  which  are  made  of  matter  are  called  material 
things.     Do  you  know  what  material  means  ? 

P. — We  do  not. 

T. — It  means  composed  of  matter.  What,  then,  are  material 
things  ? 

P. — Things  composed  of  matter  are  material  things. 

T. — Write  this  answer  on  your  slates.  What  kind  of  thing 
is  this  pencil? 

P. — It  is  a  material  thing. 

T. — Why  is  it  a  material  thing? 

P- — Because  it  is  composed  of  matter. 

T.— How  do  you  know  it  is  composed  of  matter? 

P. — Because  we  can  see  it  and  feel  it. 

*• — How  many  new  words  have  you  learned  in  this  lesson? 

P. — We  have  learned  three  new  words. 


10  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

T.— What  are  they  ? 

P. — They  are  senses,  matter,  and  material. 

T.— What  are  the  five  senses? 

Pupils  answer  the  question,  and  then  define  matter  and 
material. 

In  this  lesson  is  exemplified  a  method  of  teaching  the  meaning 
and  use  of  new  words,  or  words  with  which  pupils  are  not  familiar. 
When  teaching  the  name  of  an  object  not  familiarly  known,  ex- 
hibit the  object,  or  a  picture  of  it,  before  giving  its  name. 

The  names  of  parts  of  objects  should  be  taught  in  a  similar 
manner.  Consult  any  good  work  on  object  lessons  for  illustrative 
exercises. 

LESSON   III. 

2.  Action- Words. 

Teacher. — When  I  say  "The  boys  run",  which  word  tells 
what  the  boys  are  €k)ing  ? 

Pupils. — The  word  "runs"  tells  what  the  boys  are  doing. 

T. — When  I  say  "The  dog  barks",  which  word  tells  what 
the  dog  is  doing? 

P. — The  word  "  barks "  tells  what  the  dog  is  doing. 

Write  these  two  sentences  on  the  blackboard. 

T. — There  are  a  great  many  words  which  tell  us  what  dif- 
ferent things  do.  Such  words  usually  express  actions.  What 
is  a  good  name  for  them  ? 

P. — Action-words  is  a  good  name. 

T. — What,  then,  are  action-words? 

P. — Action-words  are  words  which  tell  us  what  different 
things  do. 

T. — AVhen  action-words  are  used  with  the  names  of  things, 
they  usually  affirm  soniething  of  those  things.  Do  you  know 
what  "affirm"  means? 

P — We  do  not. 

'M\— "Affinn  "  means  to  say.    Action-words  say  something  of 


ORAL   LESSONS.  11 

things.  You  may  now  aflfirm  the  following  action-words  of 
appropriate  things:  walk^  trot,  cackle,  whistle,  plow,  fly,  play, 
jump,  scratch,  sing,  remember,  whisper,  quarrel,  recite. 

Pupils  write  on  their  slates,  "Men  walk^\  "Horses  trot^\ 
"Scholars  recite",  &e. 

T. — You  may  tell  what  the  following  things  do :  hens, 
geese,  cats,  sheep,  horses,  men,  farmers,  merchants,  vessels,  winds, 
trees,  flowers. 

Pupils  write  on  their  slates:  "Hens  cackle",  ''^ Vessels  sail", 
''Trees  grow",  &c. 

Let  the  pupils  also  tell  all  the  actions  which  any  specified 
object  may  perform :  as,  scholars  study,  scholars  learn,  scholars 
recite,  &c. ;  horses  walk,  horses  trot,  horses  gallop,  horses  neigh, 
horses  kick,  &c. 

LESSON  IV. 

3.  Quality- Words. 

Teacher. — Copy  on  your  slates  what  I  write  on  the  black- 
board. {Writes)  "Oranges  are  sweet".  What  word  describes 
oranges  ? 

Pupils. — The  word  "sweet"  describes  oranges. 

T. — That  is  right.  It  is  a  word  used  to  denote  that  oranges 
possess  a  certain  quality  —  that  of  being  sweet.  Now,  place  the 
word  "ripe"  before  "oranges".  Norman,  you  may  read  what 
you  have  written. 

Norman. — "  Ripe  oranges  are  sweet." 

T. — What  other  word  here  describes  oranges  by  denoting 
some  quality? 

!•• — The  word  "  ripe  "  describes  oranges. 

T. — As  both  of  these  words — ripe  and  sweet  —  denote  qual- 
ity, what  will  be  a  good  name  for  them  ? 

P. — Quality-words  will  be  a  good  name. 

T.— Is  "sweet"  placed  before  or  after  "oranges"? 

P. — It  is  placed  after  "oranges". 


12  ELExMENTARY   GRAMMAR. 

T. — Where  is  the  word  "ripe"  placed? 

P. — It  is  placed  before  "oranges". 

T. — Where  may  quality-words  be  placed,  then? 

P. — They  may  be  placed  both  before  and  after  the  names 
they  describe. 

T. — Write  all  the  appropriate  quality-words  you  can  think 
of  before  the  word  "apples". 

Pupils  write :  Sour  apples,  sioeet  apples,  pleasant  apples,  large 
apples,  small  apples,  sound  apples,  rotten  apples,  &c. 

T. — Write  all  the  appropriate  quality-words  you  can  think 
of  after  the  word  "ice". 

Pupils  write:   Ice  is  cold,  ice  is  heavy,  ice  is  solid,  &c. 

T. — When  a  quality-word  is  written  after  the  name  it  de- 
scribes, a  word  or  group  of  words  is  usually  placed  between  it 
and  that  name.  What  word  is  thus  used  in  the  sentences  you 
have  just  written  ? 

P. — The  word  "is"  is  thus  used. 

T. — When  the  word  "is"  or  some  similar  word  is  placed 
between  a  quality-word  and  the  name  it  describes,  the  quality- 
word  is  said  to  be  affirmed  of  the  name. 

Write  the  following  quality-words  before  appropriate  names  : 
Round,  square,  large,   small,  light,  heavy,  red,   yellow,  green, 
smooth,  rough,  dark,  muddy,  pretty,  sweet. 
Model. — A  round  table. 

Write  the  same  ivords  after  appropriate  names. 
Model. — The  table  is  round. 

LESSON  V. 
4.  Sentence-Making. 

Teacher. — Copy  these  words  on  your  slates:  always,  good, 
happy,  are,  scholars.  Are  these  words  so  arranged  as  to  express 
any  meaning? 


Pnpiis. — They  are  not. 


ORAL    LESSONS.  13 

T. — Arrange  them  so  that  they  will  express  some  meaning. 
A  papil. — "  Good  scholars  are  always  happy." 
T. — Arrange  them  so  that  they  will  ask  a  question  ? 
A  pupil. — "Are  good  scholars  always  happy?" 
T. — Well  done.    When  groups  of  words  express  some  mean- 
ing, they  are  said  to  make  complete  sense.     Such  groups  are 
called  sentences.     What,  then,  is  a  Sentence  f 

■P. — A  Sentence  is  a  group  of  words  making  complete  sense. 

If  necessary,  the  teacher  may  assist  the  pupils  in  expressing 
this  definition. 

T. — Arrange  these  words  into  a  sentence:  unknow7i,  the,  to, 

were,  fire-arms,  ancients. 

A  pupil. — "  Fire-arms  were  unknown  to  the  ancients." 
T. — Arrange  them  so  that  they  will  ask  a  question? 
A  pupil. — "Were  fire-arms  unknown  to  the  ancients?" 
T. — Now  write  a  sentence  containing  the  words  ice,  up,  sun, 

datjlight.    Supply  words  necessary  to  make  complete  sense. 
A  pupil. — "  We  were  up  by  daylight  to  see  the  sun  rise." 
T. — Very  well  done.     Has  any  one  a  different  sentence? 
A  pupil. — "  We  got  up  after  daylight  before  the  sun  rose." 

Let  the  pupils  read  the  sentences  they  have  written. 

T. — You  may  now  arrange  these  words  and  groups  of  words, 
separated  by  commas,  into  a  sentence :  left,  he,  of  the  academy, 
house,  for  the  halls,  father's,  his. 

A  pupil. — "For  the  halls  of  the  academy,  he  left  his 
father's  house." 

T. — Has  any  one  a  different  arrangement  ? 

A  pupil. — "He  left  his  father's  house  for  the  halls  of  the 
academy." 

T. — Arrange  these  words  into  a  sentence,  supplying  neces- 
sary  words :    beautiful,  our,  garden,  flowers. 

1st  pupil — "  Beautiful  flowers  grow  in  our  garden." 

2d  pupil — "How  beautiful  the  flowers  are  in  our  garden!" 

3d  pupil — "  Our  garden  is  full  of  beautiful  flowers." 


14  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

4lh  pnpii. — "How  beautiful  the  flowers  look  in  our  garden!" 

This  exercise  may  be  made  very  interesting  and  attractive. 
Let  the  length  of  the  sentences  to  be  constructed  be  adapted  to 
the  age  and  mental  development  of  the  pupil.  Select  the  best 
arranged  of  the  sentences  given  —  write  it  on  the  blackboard,  and 
give  reasons  for  preferring  it  to  all  others. 

Turning  poetry  into  prose  is  an  exercise  which  may  follow  this. 
Select  some  simple  ballad ;  read  it  to  your  pupils ;  then  read  each 
verse  slowly  and  distinctly,  and  instruct  your  pupils  how  to  ex- 
press the  thought  or  sentiment  of  the  verse  in  prose,  and  in  their 
own  language. 

LESSON  VI. 
5.  Things  Seen  in  Pictures. 

The  teacher  exhibits  a  picture.  Suppose  the  principal  objects 
in  it  to  be  a  lady  and  a  gentleman  on  horseback,  a  boy  playing 
with  a  dog,  a  house,  a  gate,  and  a  hill  in  the  background. 

Teacher  {to  a  pupil). — What  do  you  see  in  this  picture? 

Pupil. — I  see  a  lady  and  a  gentleman  on  horseback  in  the 
picture. 

The  teacher  writes  the  answer  on  the  blackboard  ;  the  pupils 
copy  it  on  their  slates. 

Teacher  [to  another  pupil). — What  do  you  see  in  this 
picture  ? 

Pupil. — I  see  a  boy  in  the  picture. 

Write  this  answer,  as  before. 

T.  {to  a  third  pupil). — What  do  you  see? 

P. — I  see  a  dog  in  the  picture. 

Write  this  answer,  as  before. 

T.  {to  a  fourth  pupil). — What  do  you  see? 

P. — I  see  a  house  in  the  picture. 

Write  this  answer,  as  before. 


\^ 


ORAL   LESSONS. 


15 


Ask  similar  questions  of  other  pupils,  until  all  the  prominent 
objects  in  the  picture  have  been  pointed  out  and  named. 


T. — "What  is  the  boy  doing? 

P. — The  boy  is  playing  with  the  dog. 

Write  this  answer,  as  before. 

T.— What  makes  you  think  the  boy  is  playing  with  the  dog? 

Pupils  give  reasons. 

T.— Into  what  does  the  gate  open  ? 

P.— The  gate  opens  into  a  lawn  in  front  of  the  house. 

Write  this  answer,  as  before. 

T.— Where  is  the  tree? 

P.— The  tree  is  at  the  corner  of  the  fence,  near  the  gate. 

Write  this  answer,  as  before. 


16  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

T. — Is  there  any  thing  else  near  the  gate  ? 

P. — There  are  some  steps  leading  up  to  the  gate. 

Write  this  answer,  as  before. 

T. — Where  is  the  hill  ? 

P. — The  hill  is  back  of  the  house. 

Write  this  answer,  as  before. 

T. — Silas,  you  may  tell  me  what  you  see  in  the  picture. 

Silas. — I  see  a  lady  and  a  gentleman  on  horseback,  a  boy, 
a  dog,  a  house,  a  gate,  and  a  hill,  in  the  picture. 

T.— Pupils,  you  may  erase  the  first  four  answers  written  on 
your  slates,  and  in  their  place  write  the  answer  Silas  has  just 
given.  Now  see  what  a  nice  composition  you  have  written. 
Susan,  you  may  read  what  is  written  on  your  slate. 

Susan  reads :  "  I  see  a  lady  and  a  gentleman  on  horseback, 
a  boy,  a  dog,  a  house,  a  gate,  and  a  hill,  in  the  picture.  The 
boy  is  playing  with  the  dog.  The  gate  opens  into  the  lawn, 
in  front  of  the  house.  The  tree  is  at  the  corner  of  the  fence, 
near  the  gate.  There  are  some  steps  leading  up  to  the  gate. 
The  hill  is  back  of  the  house. 

T. — Sarah,  will  you  point  to  that  part  of  the  picture  which 
appears  to  be  nearest  you  ?    Do  you  know  what  that  is  called  ? 

Sarali. — I  do  not. 

Other  pupils  say  that  they  do  not. 

T. — It  is  called  the  foreground.  Write  that  word  on  your 
slates  as  I  write  it  on  the  blackboard.  Now  pronounce  it. 
Can  any  one  now  tell  me  what  the  foreground  of  a  picture  is? 

A  pupil. — The  foreground  of  a  picture  is  that  part  which 
seems  to  be  nearest  us. 

This  definition  is  written  on  blackboard  and  slates,  and  then 
repeated  in  concert. 

Teach  in  a  similar  manner  the  meaning  of  the  terra  back- 
ground. 

T.— How  many  neiu  words  have  you  learned  in  this  lesson? 

P.— We  have  learned  two  new  words. 


ORAL    LESSONS.  17 

T. — What  are  they? 

p. — They  are  foreground  and  background. 

Let  the  pupils  give  the  definition  of  these  terms  a  second  time. 

Should  a  painting  or  colored  picture  be  used  in  giving  this 
lesson,  call  attention  to  the  different  colors;  write  their  names, 
and  compare  them  with  similarly  colored  objects  in  the  school- 
room—  such  as  articles  of  dress,  flowers,  etc. 

LESSON  VIL 
6.  Word-Picturiii?. 

Teacher. — I  will  read  you  a  short  story,  which  I  find  in 
^^Gowdery^s  Moral  Lessons": 

"In  one  of  our  large  cities,  a  mechanic,  in  going  to  his  work, 
had  occasion  to  pass  a  group  of  ragged  immigrants  just  landed 
from  a  British  ship.  They  appeared  forlorn  and  destitute. 
They  made  no  appeal  for  assistance,  but  sat  silent  on  the  side- 
walk, in  their  misery  and  squalor.  The  mechanic  regarded  them 
for  a  moment,  and  then,  as  if  seized  by  a  sudden  impulse,  drew 
his  dinner,  wrapped  in  an  old  newspaper,  from  his  pocket,  and 
gave  it  to  a  woman  who  crouched  near  him,  to  divide  among 
her  children.     He  did  not  wait  for  thanks,  but  hurried  ofi*." 

Now,  pupils,  can  you  tell  me  the  name  of  the  feeling 
which  led  this  mechanic  to  give  his  dinner  to  the  poor  im- 
migrants? 

Pupils  suggest  different  names ;  as,  pity,  good-nature^  &c. ;  or 
say,  "He  pitied  them";  "He  wanted  to  do  good";  "He  was 
sorry  they  were  so  poor  and  hungry  ",  &c. 

T. — The  word  I  have  in  my  mind,  as  a  name  for  his  feeling 
for  them,  is  "  compassion  ".  The  immigrants  looked  so  forlorn 
and  distressed  that  he  felt  sorry  for  them,  and  sorrow  excited 
by  the  distress  of  others,  is  called  compassion.  Can  you  now 
tell  me  what  compassion  is  ? 


18  ELEMENTARY   GRAMMAR. 

A  pupil. — Compassion  is  sorrow  excited  by  the  distress  of 
others. 

Write  this  definition  on  blackboard  and  slates;  then  recite  it 
in  concert.  In  review  lessons,  let  some  pupil  tell  the  story  as 
an  illustration  of  the  meaning  of  the  word. 

Read  or  relate  stories  which  illustrate  charity,  honesty,  courage, 
pity,  benevolence,  kindness,  obedience,  self-denial,  &c.  Let  the  words 
illustrated  remain  on  the  blackboard  until  each  pupil  thoroughly 
understands  their  meaning  and  application. 

This  lesson  may  be  given  to  the  whole  school,  as  a  portion 
of  the  opening  or  closing  exercises. 

LESSON  VIII. 
7.  Mispronouuced  Words. 

Teacber. — I  will  write  on  the  blackboard  what  I  once 
heard  a  boy  say.  (  Writes)  "  It  is  orful  cold  this  mornin' ". 
Now  spell  the  word  "orful"  as  he  pronounced  it.  Spell  by 
sound. 

Pupils  spell :   o-r,  or,  f-u-l,  Jul,  orful. 

T. — Do  you  think  there  is  any  such  word  as  "orful"? 

Pupils  may  seem  undecided :   different  opinions  may  be  given 

T. — What  other  word  sounds  somewhat  like  it  ? 

A  pupil.— The  word  "  awful "  sounds  somewhat  like  it. 

T. — Spell  the  word  "  awful "  by  sound. 

Pupils  spell :   a,  aw,  f-v^l,  ful,  awftd. 

T.— That  is  the  word  he  intended  to  use.  How  many  will 
remember  the  correct  pronunciation  of  the  word  "  awful "  ? 

All  hands  are  raised. 

T. — What  other  word  did  the  boy  mispronounce  ? 
P. — He  mispronounced  the  word  "morning". 

Spell  both  "mornin"'  and  "morning"  by  sound,  calling  atten- 


ORAL    LESSONS.  19 

tion  to  the  difference  between  the  sound  represented  by  "n"  and 
that  represented  by  **ng". 

T. — Is  "awful"  a  proper  word  to  be  used  here? 

Pupils  express  different  opinions. 

T. — "Very"  is  the  word  the  boy  should  have  used.  He 
should  have  said,  "It  is  very  cold  this  morning". 

Write  the  corrected  sentence  on  blackboard  and  slates.  Read 
it,  pronouncing  each  word  slowly  and  distinctly  —  then  let  the 
pupils  read  it. 

Correct,  in  a  similar  manner,  the  pronunciation  of  the  itali- 
cized words-  in  the  following 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Father  sold  our  bay  hoss  yesterday.  2.  April  comes  after 
March.  3.  I  saw  a  rfor^-fight.  4.  Drive  the  keows  (cows)  to 
pasture.  5.  That  was  a  drefful  (dreadful)  mistake.  6.  The  school- 
marster  punished  me  for  laffin\  7.  I  oncet  went  a  miled  for  a 
bunch  oi  voileta.     8.  I  kin  (can)  read  words  of  lib  (two)  syllables. 

Make  lists  of  ivorcls  mispronounced  by  your  pupils,  and  teach  their 
proper  pronunciation. 

LESSON   IX. 
8.  Incorrect  Expressions. 

Teacher. — I  once  heard  a  boy  say,  "I  hain't  got  no  slate". 
Did  he  use  correct  language  ? 

A  pupil.— He  did  not. 

T. — What  should  he  have  said  ? 

A  pupil. — He  should  have  said,  "I  have  got  no  slate". 

T. — Do  you  all  think  that  is  correct  language  ? 

A  pupil. — I  do  not.  He  should  have  said,  "I  have  no 
slate  ". 

T. — That  is  right.  The  word  "  got "  is  unnecessary,  and  we 
should  always  omit  unnecessary  words. 


20  ELEMENTARY    GRAiMMAR. 

Write  the  incorrect  and  correct  expressions  on  the  blackboard, 
and  let  the  pupils  write  them  on  their  slates. 

Teacher. — See  whether  you  can  correct  this  expression: 
"Give  me  them  pencils". 

A  pupil. — It  should  be,  "Give  me  those  pencils". 

T. — That  is  right.  Before  the  names  of  things,  the  word 
"those"  should  be  used  instead  of  "them".  Correct  this 
expression:  "Them  apples  are  sour". 

P. — It  should  be,  "Those  apples  are  sour";  because 
"those"  should  be  used  instead  of  "them"  before  the  names 
of  things. 

T. — I  once  heard  a  saucy,  ill-mannered  boy  say,  "  Old  Jones 
has  lots  of  tin".     Was  such  language  respectful? 

A  pupil. — It  was  not.     He  should  have  said,  "Mr.  Jones". 

T. — Is  that  all  the  correction  you  would  make? 

P. — It  is  not.  He  meant  to  say  that  Mr.  Jones  had  plenty 
of  money:  he  should  have  said,  "Mr.  Jones  has  plenty  of 
money",  not  "lots  of  tin". 

T. — That  is  right.  Do  you  know  what  such  language  as 
this  boy  used  is  called  ? 

p. — We  do  not. 

T. — It  is  called  slang,  which  means  low,  vulgar  language. 
Never  use  slang. 

Let  the  pupils  now  define  s/an^r  — write  the  definition  on  black- 
board and  slates,  and  repeat  it  in  concert. 

EXERCISES. 
1.  I  can't  tell  you  no  more.     2.  I  am  almost  froze.     3.  He  ha? 
just  came.     4.  That  excuse  is  all  wore  out.     5.  I  have  n't  saw  him 
for  raore'n  a  week.     6.   I  wouldn't  have  went,  if  I  had  been  in 
your  place.     7.  I  am  sure  one  of  them  sentences  are  wrong. 

8.  There  is  many  kinds  of  fame.  9.  Had  any  one  a  pencil 
they  are  willing  to  lend.  10.  I  am  e'en-a-most  tuckered  out.  11. 
It  was  not  me.  12.  Is  that  all  the  far  that  you  can  count?  13.  My 
money  is  all  done  spent.     14.  I  guess  she  come  lately. 


ORAL   LESSONS.  iJl 

15.  T  just  wanted  he  and  Charley  to  see  tliat.  16.  I  have  ate 
all  my  dinner;  hain't  you  ate  your'n?  17.  Him  and  me  are 
classmates.  18.  Tliat  book  is  his'n.  19.  Let  us  try  and  learn  all 
we  can. 

20.  I'll  shut  his  peepers  for  him.  21.  If  any  one  strikes  you, 
go  for  him.  22.  Whar  are  you  toting  that  gun,  stranger?  23. 
This  'ere  road  is  orful  muddy.  24.  Do  n't  tell  nobody  where  I  am. 
25.  I  live  to  home.     26.  Watch  out  for  the  steamboat. 

27.  I  catched  ten  fish  last  evening.  28.  Eli,  he  run,  and  John, 
lie  run.  29.  Eggs,  they  is  very  dear.  30.  When  does  your  .school 
take  up?  31.  Our  taters  is  all  rottin'.  32.  Is  n't  that  are  line  writ 
well  ?    33.  What 's  the  heft  of  that  stun  ? 

34.  Where  you  gwine  ?  35.  I  knowed  what  he  done  thar ;  but 
I  never  let  on.  36.  Ghosts  can't  skeer  me.  37.  Multiply  the  mul- 
tiplier on  to  the  multiplicand.     38.  That 's  what 's  the  matter. 

Observe  carefully  the  language  of  your  pupils,  and  correct  all  un- 
grammatical  expressions. 

Sagrg-estion. — Usually  the  corrected  expression  only  should  be 
written  on  the  blackboard. 

LESSON   X. 

9.  Cliisses  of  Sentences. 

Teacher. — When  I  say/ "The  window  is  open",  I  state  a 
fact.     What  kind  of  sentence  do  I  use  ? 

Pupils. — You  use  a  sentence  that  states  a  fact. 

T. — That  is  right.  I  use  what  is  called  a  Declarative  Serf 
tence.    Can  you  now  tell  me  what  a  declarative  sentence  is  ? 

A  pnpil. — A  declarative  sentence  states  a  fact. 

T. — Write  that  definition  on  your  slates.  Now  repeat  it  in 
concert.  When  I  say,  "Is  the  window  open?"  what  kind  of 
sentence  do  I  use? 

P. — You  use  a  sentence  that  asks  a  question. 

T. — Such  a  group  of  words  is  called  an  Interroffofive  Sen- 
tence.    Can  vou  tell  me  what  an  interrogative  sentence  is? 


22  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

A  pupil. — An  interrogative  sentence  asks  a  question. 

T. — Write  that  definition  on  your  slates.  Repeat  it  in  con- 
cert. Wiien  1  say,  "Clarence,  open  the  window",  what  kind 
of  sentence  do  I  use  ? 

P. — You  use  a  sentence  that  makes  a  command. 

T. — Such  a  sentence  is  called  an  Imperative  Sentence.  Can 
you  tell  me  what  an  imperative  sentence  is  ? 

A  pupil. — An  imperative  sentence  makes  a  command. 

T. — When  I  say,  "O,  that  window  is  open  again  I"  I  ex- 
press some  feeling  or  emotion.  I  then  use  what  is  called  an 
Exclamatory  Sentence.     What  is  an  exclamatory  sentence  ? 

A  pupil. — An  exclamatory  sentence  expresses  some  feeling 
or  emotion. 

T. — Write  this  definition  on  your  slates.  Repeat  it  in  con- 
cert. These  are  all  the  classes  of  sentences  there  are.  How 
many  are  there  ? 

Pupils. — There  are  four  classes  of  sentences. 

T. — Repeat  their  names. 

P. — ^^Declarative,  Interrogative;  Imperative,  and  Exclam- 
atory. 

EXERCISES. 

Tell  the  kinds  of  sentence.^  in  the  following  exercises  : 

1.  The  winds  bring  perfumes.  2.  Where  is  my  new  book?  3. 
Necessity  is  the  mother  of  invention.  4.  Go  to  the  ant,  thou 
sluggard !  5.  Oh,  how  I  trembled  with  disgust !  6.  Does  God 
uniformly  work  in  one  way?  7.  Be  not  forward  in  the  presence 
of  your  superiors.     8.  Lend  me  your  wings  !   I  mount !  I  fly  ! 

Tell  the  kind  of  sentences  in  your  reading  lesson.  Change  the  form 
of  these  sentences,  from  declarative  to  interrogative,  &c. 

[§>ug:g:estion. — While  studying  Parts  ll  and  III  of  this  work, 
let  the  pupils  change  the  form  of  many  exercises  in  analysis  and 
parsing.  This  exercise  will  teach  them  how  to  express  different 
shades  of  meaning  by  different  arrangements  of  the  same  words. 


PAKT6    Ui-    ^SPEECH.  23 


PART    II. 
PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

10.  Objects. 

1.  Tlie  Senses. — We  have  five  senses  :  seeing,  hear- 
ing, feeling,  tasting,  and  smelling. 

We  obtain  a  knowledge  of  material  things  by  means  of 
these  senses. 

When  we  see,  hear,  feel,  taste,  or  smell  things,  we  are  said 
to  perceive  them. 

We  can  not  perceive  things  which  are  not  material,  or 
composed  of  matter.  We  are  said  to  be  conscious  of  such 
things. 

I  drop  a  book  upon  the  floor.  A  force  called  gravitation 
draws  it  toward  the  center  of  the  earth.  We  can  not  perceive 
this  force,  but  we  are  conscious  of  it, —  that  is,  we  know  such  a 
force  must  exist. 

We  are  conscious  of  many  other  things  which  we  can  not 
perceive ;   as,  love,  hatred,  joy,,  sorrow. 

All  these  things  are  called  objects.  What,  then,  is  an 
object  f 

2.  An  Object  is  any  thing  we  can  perceive  or  be 
conscious  of. 

When  we  think,  we  think  of  objects :  when  we  talk,  we 
talk  about  objects :  when  we  write,  we  write  about  objects. 


24  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR, 

When   we   talk   or   write,   we   use   words   to   express    our 
thoughts.     What,  then,  is  a  word  f 

3.   A  Word  is  a  syllable  or  combination  of  sylla- 
bles used  in  the  expression  of  thought. 


<(aestions. — How  many  senses  have  we?  Name  them.  How 
do  we  obtain  a  knowledge  of  material  things  ?  Can  we  perceive 
things  which  are  not  material  ?  What  is  an  object  ?  What  is  a 
word  ? 

11.  Gnamniar. 

1.  ^Language  is  the  expression  of  thought  by  means 
of  words. 

When  we  talk,  we  express  our  ideas  by  spoken  words.  This 
is  called  Spoken  Language. 

2.  Spoken  Liaiiguage  is  the  expression  of  ideas  by 
the  voice. 

When  we  write  or  print  our  thoughts,  we  use  letters  which 
represent  sounds.     This  is  called  Written  Language. 

3.  Written  Language  is  the  expression  of  thought 
by  the  use  of  written  or  printed  characters. 

Different  nations  use  different  languages.  What  language 
do  we  use  ?    The  English  language, 

4.  Oraiuniar  treats  of  the  principles  and  usages 
of  language. 

5.  ^English  Grammar  teaches  how  to  speak  and 
write  the  English  language  correctly. 


Questions. — What  is  language?     Spoken  language?     Written 
language?     Grammar?     English  grammar? 
What  is  an  object  ?     What  is  a  word  ? 


PARTS    OF    SPEECH. 

12.  Parts  of  Speech. 

"Scholars  study."     What  word  is  here  used  instead  of 
names  of  the  persons  of  whom  we  are  speaking?     "Scholars." 
What  word  tells  what  scholars  do  ?    "  Study." 

"Good  scholars  study."     What  word  here  describes  schol- 
ars?   "Good." 

"Good  scholars  study  diligently."     What   word   here  tells 
how  good  scholars  study?     "Diligently." 

Words,  then,  not  only  have  different  meanings,  but  they 
are  also  used  in  different  ways. 

They  can  be  divided  into  classes,  according  to  their  mean- 
ing and  use. 

These  classes  are  called  Parts  of  Speech. 

Parte  of  Speech  are  the  classes  into  which  words 
are  divided  according  to  their  meaning  and  use. 

It  is  necessary  to  know  its  meaning  and  use  in  order  to 
determine  to  which  class  any  word  belongs. 


Questions. — What  are  parts  of  speech  ?  What  is  necessary  in 
order  to  determine  the  class  to  which  any  word  belongs  ? 

What  is  language?  Spoken  language?  Written  language? 
Grammar?     English  grammar? 

What  is  an  object  ?     What  is  a  word  ? 


13.  The  Noun. 

"What  are  the  words  boy,  girl,  city,  door,  window,  book,  desk  f 
They  are  names. 

That  is  correct.  They  are  the  names  of  objects,  not  the 
objects  themselves.  Each  word  is  called  a  noun,  which  means 
a  name. 

What  are  the  words  house,  farm,  garden,  dog,  horse,  black- 
smith, merchant  f  They  are  nouns.  Why  ?  Because  they  are 
names. 


26  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

What  are  the  words  Mary,  John,  Washington,  Chicago,  Ohio, 
America  ?    They  are  nouns.     Why  ?    Because  they  are  names. 

Can  the  name  boy  be  applied  to  all  boys?  It  can.  Can 
the  name  John  be  applied  to  all  boys  ?  •  It  can  not.  Why  ? 
Because  boys  have  different  names,  such  as  Charles,  Frank, 
Samuel,  Clarence.  Why  are  boys  called  by  different  names? 
In  order  to  distinguish  one  from  another. 

Can  the  name  city  be  applied  to  all  cities  ?  It  can.  Is  the 
name  Chicago  applied  to  all  cities?  It  is  not.  Why?  Be- 
cause it  is  the  name  of  a  particular  city. 

There  are,  then,  two  kinds  or  classes  of  nouns:  those  which 
can  be  applied  to  each  one  of  a  class  of  objects,  and  those 
which  are  applied  to  a  particular  one  only. 

The  first  kind  are  called  Common  Nouns:  the  second  kind, 
Proper  Nouns. 

1.  A  ^oiin  is  a  name;  as,  hoy^  John,  railroad. 

2.  A  Couiuiou  ^oun  is  a  name  which  may  be  ap- 
plied to  any  one  of  a  class  of  objects;  as,  hird^  door^ 
lightning. 

3.  A  Proper  ^N'ouii  is  the  name  of  some  particular 
person,  place,  people,  or  thing ;  as,  Susan,  Borne,  Mex- 
ico, Sun. 

Proper  nouns  should  commence  with  capital  letters. 

What  kind  of  noun  is  plow  ?  It  is  a  common  noun.  Why? 
Because  it  can  be  applied  to  all  plows. 

What  kind  of  a  noun  is  New  York  ?  It  is  a  proper  noun. 
Why?    It  is  the  name  of  a  particular  place. 

Write  the  names  of  five  kinds  of  fruit :  of  five  kinds  of  grain  : 
of  three  articles  of  clothing :  of  five  games :  of  five  bad  habits  : 
of  six  farming  implements :  of  four  trades :  of  six  townships 
in  your  county:  of  six  large  citi&s:  of  five  large  rivers:  of  five 
mountains :  of  seven  of  your  schoolmates. 


PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  27 

"What  are  these  words?  Why?  Tell  which  are  common 
and  which  are  proper  nouns. 

Tell  which  are  common   and  which   are  proper  nouns  in   the 

following  list: 

Lake  Erie,  railroad,  barn,  Boston,  Sarah,  Augusta,  rain, 
snow,  dew,  Niagara  Falls,  thunder,  lesson,  slate,  Indianapolis, 
hour,  minute,  April,  Vesuvius,  volcano,  Palestine,  temple, 
college,  church,  organ,  steeple.  Black  Sea. 

Point  out  all  the  nouns  in  your  reading  lesson,  and  tell  which 
are  common  and  which  are  proper  nouns,  itsing  the  fol- 
lowing 

MODEL. 
"Cicero  was  an  orator." 
Cicero  is  a  noun;  it  is  a  name:   proper;  it  is  the  name  of  a 
particular  person. 

Orator  is  a  noun;  (why?):  common;  it  may  be  applied  to 
any  one  of  a  class  of  objects. 


Questions. -What  is  a  noun?  How  many  classes  of  nouns 
are  there?  What  is  a  common  noun?  Give  examples.  What  is 
a  proper  noun?  Give  examples.  Which  class  should  commence 
with  capital  letters? 

Can  you  write  objects?  Can  you  write  the  names  of  objects? 
What  are  parts  of  speech  ?    What  is  language  ?    What  an  object  ? 


14.  The  Sentence. 

AVhat  is  the  color  of  chalk?  It  is  white.  Chalk  breaks 
easily :  is  it  tough  or  brittle  f  -  It  is  brittle.  We  can  not  see 
through  it:  hence  we  say  it  is  opaque.  What  part  of  speech 
is  the  word  chalk  f    It  is  a  noun.     Why? 

We  will  join  the  words  white,  brittle,  opaque  with  the  noun 
chalk,  thus : 

Chalk  is  white. 
Chalk  is  brittle. 
Chalk  is  opaque. 


28  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

Each  of  these  groups  of  words  is  called  a  Sentence. 

1.  A  Sentence  is  a  group  of  \fords  making  com- 
plete sense. 

Each  group  is  also  called  a  Proposition. 

2.  A  Proposition  is  a  thought  expressed  in  words. 

In  writing  sentences,  the  pupils  should  carefully  observe 
the  following  directions: 

1st.    Commence  each  sentence  with  a  capital  letter. 

2d.    Spell  each  Avord  correctly. 

3d.  Place  a  period  [.]  at  the  end  of  every  sentence 
that  declares  something,  or  makes  a  command. 

4th.  Place  an  interrogation  point  [  ?  ]  at  the  end  of 
every  question. 

5th.    Never  divide  a  syllable  at  the  end  of  a  line. 


<iiiesttions. — What  is  a  sentence  ?  A  proposition  ?  Give  the 
directions  for  writing  sentences. 

What  are  parts  of  speech ?  What  is  language?  What  language 
do  the  Germans  use?     What  is  an  object?     What  is  a  word? 


15.  Parts  of  a  Sentence. 

In  the  sentence,  "Chalk  is  white",  chalk  is  called  the  Sub- 
ject; for, 

1.  The   Subject   of  a  proposition  is  that  of  which 
something  is  affirmed. 

White  is  called  the  Predicate ;  for, 

2.  The  Predicate  of  a  proposition  is  that  which  is 
affirmed  of  the  subject. 

Is  is  called  the  Copula;  for, 


PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  29 

8.  The  Copiila  is  a  word  or  group  of  words  used 
to  affirm  the  predicate  of  the  subject. 

The  word  copula  means  a  link.  It  is  used  to  join  the  pred- 
icate to  the  subject. 

In  the  sentence,  *'Ice  is  cold",  what  is  the  subject?  "Ice." 
Why?  Because  it  is  that  of  which  something  is  affirmed. 
What  is  the  predicate?  "Cold."  Why?  Because  it  is  that 
which  is  affirmed  of  the  subject.  What  is  the  copula  ?  "  Is." 
Why?  Because  it  is  the  word  used  to  affirm  the  predicate 
cold  of  the  subject  ice.  Why  is  it  called  the  copula?  Be- 
cause it  links  or  joins  the  predicate  to  the  subject. 

Point  out  the  subject,  predicate,  and  copula  in  each  of  the  follow- 
ing sentences: 

1.  Air  is  transparent.  2.  Iron  is  heavy.  3,  Nero  was  cruel. 
4.  Jane  is  studious.  5.  Walter  will  be  tardy.  6:  Mary  should 
be  kind.  7.  Ellen  is  unhappy.  8.  Martha  was  cheerful.  9. 
George  is  industrious. 

Point  out  the  nouns  in  these  sentences,  and  tell  which  are  common 
and  which  are  proper  nouns. 


Qnestions. — What  is  the  subject  of  a  proposition?     The  pred- 
icate?   The  copula?     What  does  the  word  copvJa  mean? 

What  is  a  sentence  ?     A  proposition  ? 

What  is  a  noun?     A  common  noun?     A  proper  noun? 

What  is  language?     Spoken  language?     Written  language? 

What  is  a  word?     What  is  an  object?     Is  thunder  an  object? 
Why  ?     Is  a  horse  an  object  ?     Why  ?     Is  love  an  object  ?     Why  ? 
Give  the  directions  for  writing  sentences. 


16.  The  Noun  as  Predicate. 

In  the  sentence,  "Man  is  mortal",  the  predicate  mortal 
denotes  a  quality  belonging  to  the  subject  man.  Words  which 
express  qualities  may  be  called  quality-words.  Quality- words 
are  very  frequently  used  as  predicates. 


30  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

Nouns  may  be  used  as  predicates.  When  they  are  thus 
used,  they  denote  kind  or  class. 

In  the  sentence,  "Horses  are  animals",  what  is  the  subject? 
"Horses."  Why?  What  is  the  predicate?  "Animals."  Why? 
What  does  the  word  animals  denote  ?  It  denotes  the  kind  or 
class  of  beings  to  which  horses  belong.  What  part  of  speech 
is  it?    It  is  a  noun.     Why?     What  is  the  copula?    "Are." 

Affirm  qualities  of  the  following  subjects  : 

Fishes,  apples,  lead,  iron,  play,  swimming,  school,  marbles, 
books,  flowers,  oranges,  trees. 

Model. — Oranges  are  yellow. 

Affirm  the  following  qualities  of  appropriate  snbjects : 

Sweet,  bitter,  sour,  opaque,  transparent,   red,  yellow,  blue, 

hard,  soft,  round,  square,  mellow,  young,  old,  happy,  miserable. 
Model. — Sugar  is  sweet. 

Affirm  kind  or  class  of  the  following  subjects  : 

Sheep,  eagles,  hoe,  rake,  wheat,  corn,  ax,  locomotive,  gold, 
silver,  coat,  wagon,  houses,  oxen,  river,  road,  table. 

Model. — Eagles  are  birds. 

Affirm  qualities  of  the  sarrte  subjects. 

Ascertain  all  the  properties  of  five  substances.     Affirm  them  of  the 

substances  to  which  they  belong. 

Model. — Sugar  is  sweet;  sugar  is  opaque ;  sugar  is  combus- 
tible, &c. 


Questions. —What  are  quality-words?  Can  they  be  used  as 
predicates?  Give  an  example.  Give  an  example  of  a  noun  used 
as  a  predicate. 

What  is  the  subject  of  a  proposition?  The  predicate?  The 
copula?  * 

What  is  a  sentence?     A  proposition? 

What  is  a  noun?     A  common  noun?    A  proper  noun? 

Give  the  directions  for  writing  sentences. 


PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  31 

17.  Elements. 

We  have  seen  that  a  sentence  is  composed  of  parts.  These 
parts  are  called  Elements. 

1.  An  Menieut  is  one  of  the  distinct  parts  of  a 
sentence. 

2.  The  Subject  and  the  Predicate  are  called  Prin- 
cipal Elements^  because  no  sentence  can  be  formed 
without  them. 

3.  The  Copula  is  not  called  an  element.  It  is  used  merely 
to  affirm  the  predicate  of  the  subject. 

We  can  separate  any  sentence  into  its  elements.  This  is 
called  Analysis. 

4.  Analysis  is  the  separation  of  a  sentence  into  its 
elements. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  using  this 

MODEL. 

"Iron  is  heavy." 

This  is  a  sentence;  it  is  a  group  of^ords  making  complete  sense. 

Iron  is  the  subject;  it  is  that  of  which  something  is  affirmed: 
heavy  is  the  predicate;  it  is  that  which  is  affirmed  of  the  subject : 
is  is  the  copida. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Indigo  is  blue.  2.   Gold  is  heavy.     3.   Cork  is  light. 

4.  Flies  are  insects.     5.  Mary  was  tardy.     0.  Sarah  is  truthful. 

7.  Glass  is  transparent.  8.  Apples  are  plentiful.     9.  Boys  will 
be  playful. 

10.  Children  should  be  careful.  11.  Men  may  be  impru- 
dent. 12.  John  can  be  studious.  13.  Iron  is  useful.  14.  Sil- 
ver is  white.     15.  Roses  are  fragrant.     16.  Water  is  heavy. 


32  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

17.  Violets  are  flowers.  18.  Cherries  are  ripe.  19.  Flowers 
may  be  white.  20.  Axes  may  be  sharp.  21.  Julius  should 
be  diligent.  22.  Lessons  may  be  difficult.  23.  Oxen  may  be 
useful. 

Point  out  the  common  and  proper  nouns  in  tlie  above  sentences. 


Questions. — What  is  an  element  ?  What  are  the  principal 
elements  ?  Is  the  copula  an  element  ?  What  is  its  use  ?  What  is 
analysis  ? 

What  is  the  subject  ?     The  predicate  ?     The  copula  ? 

What  is  a  sentence?  A  proposition?  Give  the  directions  for 
writing  sentences. 

What  is  a  noun?     A  common  noun?     A  proper  noun? 

What  is  an  object  ?     What  is  a  word  ? 

What  is  language?     Spoken  language?     Written  language? 


18.  The  Terb. 

In  the  sentence,  "Fishes  swim",  what  is  the  subject? 
"Fishes."  Why?  What  is  the  predicate?  "Swim."  Why? 
Is  there  any  copula  expressed  ?     There  is  not. 

The  predicate,  then,  can  be  affirmed  of  the  subject  directly; 
one  word  expressing  both  the  copula  and  the  predicate. 

A  word  which  affirms  something  of  a  subject  is  called  a 
Verb.  It  usually  expresses  action,  being,  or  state;  as,  I  am, 
denotes  being;   I  run,  denotes  action;   I  sleep,  denotes  state. 

A  Verb  is  a  word  which  expresses  action,  being,  or 
state ;  as,  I  aw,  George  writes^  he  dreams 

What  is  the  word  "trot"  in  the  sentence,  "Horses  trot"? 
It  is  a  verb.  Why?  Because  it  affirms  action  of  the  subject 
"horses". 

What  is  the  word  "stand"  in  the  sentence,  "Houses  stand"? 
It  is  a  verb.  Why?  Because  it  affirms  state  of  the  subject 
"houses". 


PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  33 

What  is  the  subject  of  the  sentence,  "  Boys  play  "  ?  "  Boys." 
Why?  What  is  the  predicate?  "Play."  Why?  What  part 
of  speech  is  the  word  "play"?    It  is  a  verb.    Why? 

Write  sentences,  using  the  following  verbs  as  predicates: 

Run,  limp,  stand,  sing,  whistle,  mow,  reap,  study,  recite, 
sail,  look,  listen,  loiter,  reform,  neigh,  whine,  pur,  cackle, 
scream,  quarrel,  work,  play,  remain. 

Model. — Birds  sing. 
Point  out  all  the  verlis  in  your  reading  lesson. 


Questions.— What  is  a  verb?     What  does  it  usually  express? 
What  is  an  element?     What  are  the  principal  elements? 
What  is  the  subject  ?     The  predicate  ?    The  copula  ? 
What  is  a  sentence  ?     A  proposition  ? 
What  is  a  noun?     A  common  noun?     A  proper  noun? 
What  is  a  word?     What  is   language?     Grammar?     English 
grammar? 

Give  the  directions  for  writing  sentences. 


19.  Classas  of  Verbs. 

In  the  sentence,  "Boys  study",  lesson,  grammar,  algebra,  or 
some  other  word  is  required  to  complete  tlie  meaning  of  the 
predicate  "study".  That  which  tells  what  the  boys  study, 
completes  its  meaning,  and  is  called  an  Objective  Element,  or 
Object. 

1.  An  ObjectiTe  Oement  is  a  word  or  group  of 
words  which  completes  the  meaning  of  a  verb. 

Ex. — "Indians  hunt  buffaloes.''''  The  word  "buffaloes"  com- 
pletes the  meaning  of  the  verb  "hunt",  and  is  an  objective 
element. 

Those  verbs  which  require  the  addition  of  an  object  to  com- 
plete their  meaning  are  called  Transitive  Verbs. 
E.  G.— 3. 


34  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

2.  A  Transitive  Verb  requires  the  addition  of  an 
object  to  complete  its  meaning. 

Ex. — "Columbus  discovered  America."  The  verb  "discovered" 
requires  the  addition  of  some  word,  as  "America",  to  complete 
its  meaning,  and  is  therefore  transitive. 

The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  is  not  always  expressed;  but 
some  word  different  from  the  subject  can  always  be  made  its 
object. 

Ex. — "Horses  eat."  The  object  of  the  predicate  "eat"  is  not 
expressed;  but  some  word,  as  hay,  oats,  corn,  &c.,  can  be  made  its 
object. 

In  the  sentence,  "Clarence  walks",  no  word  is  required  to 
complete  the  meaning  of  the  verb  "walks".  Those  verbs 
which  do  not  require  the  addition  of  an  object  to  complete 
their  meaning  are  called  Intransitive  Verbs. 

3.  An  Intransitive  Verb  does  not  require  the  ad- 
dition of  an  object  to  complete  its  meaning. 

Ex. — *' Horses  run."  The  verb  "run"  does  not  require  the 
addition  of  an  object  to  complete  its  meaning.  It  is  therefore 
intransitive. 

The  copula  is  always  a  verb. 

4.  A  Copulative  Terb  is  used  to  assert  the  predi- 
cate of  the  subject. 

Ex. — "Lambs  are  playful".  The  verb  "are"  is  used  to  assert 
the  predicate  "playful"  of  the  subject  "lambs".  It  is  therefore  a 
copulative  verb. 

Write  seven  sentences  containing  transitive  verbs. 
Model. — John  struck  James. 

Write  seven  sentences  containing  intransitlTe  verbs. 
Models. — Houses  stand.    Boys  swim. 


PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  35 

Wnte  seven  sentences  containing  copulative  verbs. 
Model. — The  weather  was  warm. 

Write  sentences,  tising  the  following  nouns  as  objective  elements: 

Lions,  elephants,  wheat,  oats,  boats,  cars,  letters,  books, 
churches,  laws,  grass,  trees,  mountains,  sun,  geography,  debts, 
pictures,  wood. 

Model. — Fire  burns  wood. 
Analyze  the  following  sentences,  using  this 

MODEL. 
"Scholars  learn  lessons." 
This  is  a  sentence;  (why?). 

Scholars  is  the  subject;  (why?):  learn  is  the  predicate; 
(why?).     "Learn"  is  modified  by  lessons,  an  objective  element. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Dogs  hunt  rabbits.  2.  Jane  studies  botany.  3.  Eli 
drives  horses.  4.  Horses  draw  wagons.  5.  Men  build  houses. 
6.  Farmers  sow  grain.  7.  Merchants  sell  goods.  8.  Haste 
makes  waste.     9.  Soldiers  fight  battles.     10.  Cats  catch  mice. 

Point  out  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences,  using  these 

MODELS. 
L  "  The  nights  are  chilly." 
Are  is  a  verb;  it  denotes  being:   copulative;  it  is  used  to  assert 
the  predicate  of  the  subject. 

n.  "  Corn  grows." 
Orows  is  a  verb;  (why?) :   intransitive;  it  does  not  require  an 
object  to  complete  its  meaning. 

III.  "Horses  draw  wagons." 
Dra^  is  a  verb;   (why?):    transitive,    it  requires  an  object  to 
complete  its  meaning. 


36  ELEMENTARY   GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Viola  blushed.  2.  Stephen  was  a  martyr.  3.  Boys  may 
be  useful.  4.  The  merchant  sold  goods  for  money.  5.  Houses 
stand  on  the  river  bank.  6.  Fishes  swim.  7.  Elihu  works  on 
a  farm.  8.  James  is  a  clerk.  9.  James  reads  good  books. 
10.  Birds  build  nests. 

Point  out  the  nonns  in  these  sentences. 

Point  out  the  nouns  and  verbs  in  your  reading  lesson. 


Questions.— What  is  an  objective  element?  What  is  a  tran- 
sitive verb?  An  intransitive  verb?  A  copulative  verb?  Is  the 
object  of  a  transitive  verb  always  expressed  ?  Give  a  sentence  in 
which  it  is  not  expressed. 

What  is  a  verb?  What  is  an  element?  What  are  the  principal 
elements? 

What  is  the  subject?  The  predicate?  The  copula?  A  sen- 
tence ?     A  proposition  ?     Give  the  directions  for  writing  sentences. 

What  is  a  noiin  ?     A  common  noun  ?     A  proper  noun  ? 

Wliat  is  a  word?     Wliat  is  language?    An  olyect? 


20.  The  Adjective. 

When  quality-words  are  joined  to  nouns  by  copulas,  they 
are  said  to  be  predicated  of  those  nouns. 

They  may  be  written  or  printed  in  connection  with  nouns, 
without  being  joined  to  them  by  copulas;  thus:  white  chalk, 
sour  apples,  a  square  table,  good  boys. 

When  thus  used,  they  modify  or  restrict  the  meaning  of 
nouns,  but  are  not  predicated  of  them. 

Words  which  do  not  express  quality  may  be  used  as  modi- 
fiers of  nouns.  In  the  sentences,  "  This  book  is  heavy  ",  "  That 
book  is  light",  "Two  boys  were  sick",  "Three  boys  were  idle", 
the  words  this,  that,  two,  three,B,re  modifiers  of  the  nouns  which 
follow  them ;  but  they  do  not  express  any  quality.  This  and 
that  point  out  the  nouns  to  which  they  belong :  two  and  three 
denote  number. 


PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  37 

Those  words  which  modify  nouns  by  expressing  quality, 
pointing  them  out,  or  denoting  number  are  called  Adjectives. 

1.  An  AdjectlTe  is  a  word  which  modifies  the 
meaning  of  a  noun. 

2.  There  are  two  classes  of  Adjectives :  Descriptive 
and  Definitive. 

All  quality-words  are  Descriptive  Adjectives. 

3.  A  Descriptive  Adjective  modifies  a  noun  by  ex- 
pressing some  quality  belonging  to  it ;  as,  ripe  peaches, 
bad  jexamples,  round  tables.    . 

Pointing-out  words  and  number- words  are  Definitive  Ad- 
jectives. 

4.  A  I>efiiiitive  Adjective  limits  or  defines  a  noun 
without  expressing  any  of  its  qualities ;  as,  this  boy, 
that  house,  five  dollars. 

Every  adjective  derived  from  a  proper  noun  should  com- 
mence with  a  capital ;  as,  American  cotton,  French  customs. 

Place  each  of  the  following  adjectives  before  a  noun: 

Good,  bad,  hungry,-  thirsty,  agreeable,  healthy,  dry,  moist, 
warm,  cold,  round,  square,  light,  heavy,  hard,  soft,  rough, 
smooth,  clean,  dirty,  pleasant,  unpleasant,  Spanish,  Australian. 

Models.— ^Swoo^A  ice.     Clean  hands. 

What  kind  of  adjectives  are  these  ?     Why  ? 

Place  eoich  of  the  following  adjectives  before  a  noun  : 

This,  that,  these,  those,  such,  same,  another,  some,  yonder, 
each,  every,  either,  neither,  former,  latter,  both,  certain,  few, 
many,  much,  several,  sundry,  four,  seventh,  four-fold. 
Models. — Much  money.     Sundry  books. 
What  kind  of  adjectives  are  these?    Why? 


38  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

Point  out  the  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences,  using  this 

MODEL. 
"  Fearful  storms  sweep  over  these  islands." 
Fearfkil  is  an  adjective;  it  is  a  word  which  modifies  the  mean- 
ing of  a  noun:  descriptive;  it  denotes  a  quality. 

These  is  an  adjective;  (why?):  definitive;  it  defines  without  de- 
noting any  quality. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Both  horses  are  lame.  2.  Ripe  peaches  are  plentiful.  3. 
Large  houses  are  expensive.  4.  Beautiful  flowers  bloom  in 
that  garden.     5.  Either  road  leads  to  town. 

6.  Every  man  carried  a  square  box.  7.  This  lesson  is  hard. 
8.  The  brave  soldier  received  a  severe  wound.  9.  With  fleecy 
clouds  the  sky  is  blanched.  10.  Bright  and  joyful  is  the 
morning.  11.  The  day  was -clear  and  cool.  12.  A  small, 
white  house  stood  at  the  foot  of  the  hill. 

Point  out  the  nouns  and  verbs  in  the  above  sentences. 

Point  out  the  adjectives  in  your  reading  lesson. 


Questions. — What  is  an  adjective?  A  descriptive  adjective? 
A  definitive  adjective?  What  adjectives. should  commence  with 
capitals  ? 

What  is  an  objective  element  ?  A  transitive  verb  ?  An  intran- 
sitive verb?     A  copulative  verb?     What  is  a  verb? 

What  is  an  element?  What  is  the  subject?  The  predicate? 
The  copula? 

What  is  a  noun  ?     A  common  noun  ?     A  proper  noun  ? 

What  is  language?    Spoken  language?     Written  language? 


21.  The  Article. 

When  we  say,  "A  hoi*se  was  stolen",  a  denotes  that  07ie  horse 
is  meant,  but  it  does  not  point  out  any  particular  horse. 

When  we  say,  ''The  horse  was  stolen",  the  denotes  that  a 
particular  horse  is  meant. 


PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  39 

The  words  a  and  the,  in  these  sentences,  are  definitive  ad- 
jectives, because  they  limit  nouns,  without  denoting  any  of 
their  qualities.    They  are  also  called  Articles. 

A  and  an  are  different  forms  of  the  same  word.  A  is  used 
when  the  following  word  begins  with  a  consonant  sound ;  An, 
when  the  following  word  begins  with  a  vowel  sound. 

1.  The  is  called  the  Ileflnite  Article,  because  it 
points  out  definitely  the  object  which  it  restricts. 

2.  A  or  an  is  called  the  Indefiiilte  Article,  because 
it  restricts  in  an  indefinite  or  general  manner. 

Place  a  or  an  before  the  following  words,  and  tell  why  it  should 
be  used  : 

Ode,  measure,  cart,  egg,  house,  honor,  hearth,  oven,  advan- 
tage, goat,  opossum,  turkey,  orange,  humor,  stand,  eagle, 
vulture,  elephant,  memory. 

Use  a  or  an  instead  of  the  dashes  in  the  following  sentences,  and 
tell  why  it  should  be  used: 

1.  Temperance  is  —  virtue.  2.  The  house  stands  on  —  hill. 
3.  —  loud  report  was  heard.    4.  Life  is  but  —  vapor. 

5.  He  is  —  boniest  man.  6.  He  has  —  ax  to  grind.  7.  Fa- 
ther has  bought  —  horse.  8.  My  being  —  child,  was  —  plea 
for  my  admission. 

Use  the  proper  articles  instead  of  the  dashes  in  tfie  following  sen- 
tences : 

1.  Such  —  law  is  —  disgrace  to  any  state.  2.  Repeat  —  first 
four  lines  in  concert.  3.  Love  took  up  —  harp  of  life,  and 
smote  on  all  —  chords  with  might. 

4.  —  fox  is  cunning.  5.  —  days  are  calm.  6.  I  had  — 
dream  which  was  not  all  —  dream.  7.  —  wise  son  maketh  — 
glad  father.  8.  —  rain  is  over  and  —  sun  shines.  9.  —  crime, 
not  —  scaffold,  makes  —  shame. 


40  ELEMENTARY   GRAxMMAR. 

Point  out  the  articles  in  your  redding  lesson,  using  this 

MODEL. 
"The  man  was  riding  in  a  wagon." 
The  is  a  definite  article;  it  points  out  definitely  the  object  which 
It  restricts. 

A  is  an  indefinite  article;  it  restricts  in  an  indefinite  or  general 
manner. 


Questions. — What  words  are  called  articles?  Which  is  the 
definite  article?  The  indefinite  article ?  When  is  a  used?  When 
is  an  used? 

What  is  an  adjective  ?  A  descriptive  adjective  ?  A  definitive 
adjective?    What  adjectives  should  commence  with  capitals? 

What  is  a  verb?  A  transitive  verb?  An  intransitive  verb?  A 
copulative  verb  ? 

What  is  an  element?  What  is  the  subject?  The  predicate? 
The  copula  ?    What  is  analysis  ? 

What  is  a  noun?    A  common  noun?    A  proper  noun? 

Wliat  is  an  object?  What  is  a  word?  What  is  language? 
Grammar?     English  Grammar? 


22.  The  Participle. 

"James  saw  the  man  plowing." 

What  is  the  subject  of  this  sentence?  Why?  What  is  the 
predicate?  Why?  What  is  the  objective  element?  Why? 
What  words  limit  or  restrict  "man"?  The  words  "the"  and 
"plowing".  What  does  the  word  "plowing"  denote?  It  tells 
what  the  man  was  doing.  Does  it  q^rw  any  thing  of  man  ? 
It  does  not :  it  modifies  it  like  an  adjective. 

The  word  "plowing",  then,  partakes  of  the  properties  of 
both  a  verb  and  an  adjective.  Like  a  verb,  it  expresses  ac- 
tion :  like  an  adjective,  it  modifies  a  noun.  Because  it  par- 
takes of  the  properties  of  two  parts  of  speech,  it  is  called  a 
Participle,  which  means  partaking  of.    , 

A  participle  may  partake,  also,  of  the  properties  of  a  verb 
au4  of  a  noun. 


PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  41 

1.  A  Participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb, 
partaking  of  the  properties  of  a  verb,  and  of  an  ad- 
jective or  a  noun. 

When  we  say,  "The  boy  is  writing",  the  participle  "writ- 
ing" denotes  a  continuance  of  the  act:  the  boy  is  continuing  to 
write. 

When  we  say,  "The  letter  is  written",  the  participle 
"written"  denotes  a  completion  of  the  act:  the  writing  of  the 
letter  is  finished. 

When  we  say,  ^'Having  written  the  letter,  he  mailed  it",  the 
words  "having  written"  denote  that  the  writing  of  the  letter 
was  completed  before  the  time  represented  by  the  verb 
"mailed". 

2.  There  are  three  participles :  the  Present,  the 
Perfect,  and  the  Compound. 

When  a  participle  represents  the  subject  to  which  it  be- 
longs as  acting,  it  is  called  an  active  participle.  When  it 
represents  the  subject  as  being  acted  upon,  it  is  called  a 
passive  participle. 

In  the  sentence,  "The  boy,  laughing,  ran  away",  the  par- 
ticiple »laughing"  is  active:  it  represents  the  boy  as  acting. 

In  the  sentence,  "The  boy  being  punished  was  a  truant", 
the  participle  "being  punished"  is  passive,  because  it  repre- 
ents  the  boy  as  being  acted  upon. 

3.  The  Present  Participle  denotes  the  continuance 
of  action,  being,  or  state ;  as,  loving,  being  loved. 

The  present  active  participle  always  ends  in  ing. 

4.  The  Perfect  Participle  denotes  the  completion 
of  action,  being,  or  state ;  as,  loved,  been,  lived. 

The  perfect  participle  usually  ends  in  d  or  ed,  but  fre- 
quently in  n,  en,  or  t. 


42  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

5.  The  Compound  Participle  denotes  the  comple- 
tion of  action,  being,  or  state,  at  or  before  the  time 
represented  by  the  principal  verb ;  as,  '•'Having  learned 
the  lesson,  he  recited  it." 

The  "principal  verb"  is  the  verb  used  as  copula  or  predi- 
cate of  the  sentence  in  which  -the  compound  participle  is 
found. 

The  compound  participle  is  formed  by  placing  having  or 
having  been  before  a  perfect  participle,  or  having  been  before 
a  present  participle ;  as,  having  learned,  having  been  learned, 
having  been  learning. 

Give  the   present,  perfect,  and  compound  participles  of  the 

following  verbs: 

Recite,  answer,  inquire,  spell,  find,  help,  study,  grow,  paint, 
hope,  suffer,  resemble,  sit,  see,  go,  come,  arrive,  enjoy,  make, 
learn,  demand,  enchant,  reconcile. 

Form  sentences,  using  any  of  these  participles  as  predicates. 
Model. — Sarah  is  studying  her  lesson. 

Point  out  all  the  participles  in  your  reading  lesson,  using  these 

MODELS. 
I.  "The  boy,  laughing,  ran  away." 
Iiang:hingr  is  a  participle;   it  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb, 
and  partakes   of  the  properties  of  a  verb   and  of  an  adjective: 
present;   it  denotes  the  continuance  of  an  act. 

II.  "The  lesson,  studied  carefully,  was  recited." 
Studied  is  a  participle;  (why?):   perfect;  it  denotes  completion. 

III.  "  Having  recited,  we  were  dismissed." 
Having:  recited   is  a  participle;    (why?):    compound;   it  de- 
notes the  completion  of  an  act  before  the  time  represented  by  the 
principal  verb. 


PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  43 


Questions. — What  is  a  participle?  Why  is  it  called  a  par- 
ticiple? How  many  participles  are  there?  Name  them.  When 
is  a  participle  called  active  ?     W^hen  passive  f 

What  does  the  present  participle  denote  ?  How  does  the  present 
active  participle  end?  What  does  the  perfect  participle  denote? 
How  does  it  usually  end?  What  does  the  compound  participle 
denote?  What  is  the  "principal  verb"?  How  is  the  compound 
participle  formed  ? 

What  is  the  definite  article?  The  indefinite  article?  When  is 
a  used?  When  is  an  used?  What  is  an  adjective?  A  descriptive 
adjective?  A  definitive  adjective?  Wliat  is  a  verb?  A  transitive 
verb?  An  intransitive  verb?  A  copulative  verb?  What  is  an  ele- 
ment?   The  subject?     The  predicate ? 

What  is  a  noun  ?     A  common  noun  ?     A  proper  noun  ? 


23.  The  Adjective  Element. 

In  the  sentence,  "Small  lakes  are  abundant",  what  word 
modifies  "  lakes  "  ?    The  adjective  "  small ". 

In  the  sentence,  "John's  hat  is  torn",  what  word  modifies 
"hat"?  The  noun  "John's".  In  what  manner  does  it  mod- 
ify "hat"?     It  denotes  that  it  is  the  hat  which  John  owns. 

In  the  sentence,  "Mr.  Jones  the  mason  is  insane",  what 
word  modifies  "Mr.  Jones"?  The  noun  "mason".  In  what 
manner  does  it  modify  "Mr.  Jones"?  It  tells  his  trade  or 
business. 

These  modifying  words  are  called  Adjective  Elements,  because 
they  modify  nouns. 

1.  An  Adjective  Element  is  a  word  or  group  of 
words  which  modifies  a  noun. 

In  the  sentence,  "Kipe  peaches  are  plentiful",  what  ele- 
ment is  "  ripe "  ?  It  is  an  adjective  element.  Why?  Because 
it  modifies  the  noun  "peaches". 

In  the  sentence,  "  Milton  the  poet  was  blind",  what  element 
is  "poet"?    It  is  an  adjective  element.     Why? 

In  the  sentence,  "Solomon's  temple  was  destroyed",  what 
element  is  "Solomon's"?    It  is  an  adjective  element.     Why? 


44  ELExMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

Write  five  sentences,  modifying  their  stibjects  by  descriptive  ad- 
ject! veis. 
Model. — Cold  weather  is  unpleasant. 

Write  five  sentences,  modifying  their  subjects  by  deflnitlve  ad- 
jectives. 
Model. — Both  horses  are  lame. 

Write  five  sentences,  modifying  their  subjects  by  nonns. 

Models. — Elfs  uncle  is  rich.     Mr.  Todd  the  mason  is  young. 

Write  five  sentences,  modifying  both  subjects  and  objects  by  ad- 
jective elements. 
Model. — Ellen^s  mother  bought  a  new  bonnet. 

Point  out  all  the  adjective  elements  in  your  reading  lesson. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  using  tliese 

MODELS. 
I.  "  Sweet  sounds  soothe  the  ear." 
This  is  a  sentence;  (why?j. 

Sounds  is  the  subject;  (why?):  soothe,  the  predicate;  (why?). 
"Sounds"  is  modified  by  sweet,  an  adjective  element;  "soothe", 
by  ear,  an  objective  element:  "ear,"  by  the,  an  adjective  element.     " 

II.  "  Frank's  father  is  a  merchant." 

This  is  sentence;  (why?). 

Father  is  the  subject;  (why?):  merchant,  the  predicate; 
(why?).  "Father"  is  modified  by  Frank's,  an  adjective  element: 
"merchant,"  by  a,  an  adjective  element. 

III.  "Milton  the  poet  was  bliiid." 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?). 

Milton  is  the  subject;  (why?):  blind,  the  predicate;  (why?): 
was  is  the  copula.  "Milton"  is  modified  by  poet,  an  adjective 
element:   "poet",  by  the,  an  adjective  element         ' 


PARTS   OF   SPEECH.  45 

^  EXERCISES. 

1.  Clarence  is  a  good  scholar.  2.  Charles  found  an  old 
knife.  3.  Helen's  mother  is  sick.  4.  Miss  Young  the  mil- 
liner is  dead. 

5.  The  thief  stole  father's  horse.  6.  The  sheriff  caught  Hobbs 
the  burglar.  7.  Five  boys  earned  three  dollars.  8.  Both  ves- 
sels have  sailed. 

9.  Several  scholars  were  tardy.  10.  Few  men  escaped.  U. 
Many  men  died.  12.  Mr.  Snooks  the  grocer  boards  Mr.  »ear^ 
the  tailor. 


Questions. — What  is  an  adjective  element?  Can  nouns  be  used 
as  adjective  elements? 

What  is  a  participle?  How  many  participles  are  there  ?  What 
is  the  present  participle?  The  perfect  participle?  The  compound 
participle  ? 

How  does  the  present  participle  end?  Tlie  perfect  participle? 
How  is  the  compound  participle  formed  ?  Why  is  this  part  of 
speech  called  a  participle? 


24.  The  Pronoun. 

"John  put  John's  hat  on  John's  head." 

Is  this  a  correct  sentence?  It  is  not.  What  word  is  un- 
necessarily repeated?  "John's,"  How  should  the  sentence  be 
written?  It  should  be  written,  "John  put  his  hat  on  his 
head". 

What  word  is  here  used  instead  of  "John's"?     "His." 

This  word  is  called  a  Pronoun,  which  means  instead  of  a 
noun. 

1.  A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun; 
as,  he  runs,  she  sings,  they  listen. 

In  the  sentences,  "/  write",  ''You  read",  ''They  study", 
what  are  the  words  "/",  "you",  and  "they'^f  They  are  pro- 
nouns.   Why?    Because  they  are  used  instead  of  nouns — "I", 


46  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

instead  of  the  name  of  the  person  speaking;  "you",  instead 
of  the  name  of  the  person  spoken  to;  "they",  instead  of  the 
names  of  the  persons  spoken  of. 

The  name  of  a  person  speaking  is  said  to  be  of  the  first 
person;  the  name  of  an  object  spoken  to,  of  the  second  person; 
the  name  of  an  object  spoken  of,  of  the  third  person. 

Those  pronouns  which  show  by  their  form  whether  the 
nouns  which  they  represent  are  of  the  first,  second,  or  third 
person,  are  called  Personal  Pronouns. 

2.  Personal  Pronouns  both  represent  nouns  and 
show  by  their  form  whether  they  are  of  the  first,  sec- 
ond, or  third  person. 

Rem. — The  personal  pronouns  are  /,  thou,  he,  she,  it,  we^ 
our,  us,  my,  mine,  ye,  you,  your,  thy,  thine,  thee,  his,  him,  her, 
its,  they,  their,  them,  myself,  himself,  &c. 

Point   out  all   the    personal    pronouns    in    the  following  sen- 
tences: 

1.  Thou  callest.  2.  I  come.  3.  She  studies.  4.  I  like  her. 
5.  They  are  honest.  6.  Her  lesson  was  learned.  7.  I  borrowed 
his  books.  8.  They  have  sold  their  farms.  9.  You  should 
study  your  lesson.  10.  Ye  are  the  people.  11.  It  can  not  find 
its  master.    12.  Thy  fame  hath  preceded  thee. 

Analyze  the  foregoing  sentences,  and  point  out  the  nouns  and 
Terbs,  using  these 

MODELS. 

I.  "It  is  he." 
This  is  a  sentence;  (why?). 

It  is  the  subject;  (why?):  he  is  the  predicate;  (why?):  is  is 
the  copula. 

II.  "He  has  lost  his  book." 
This  is  a  sentence;  (why?). 
He  is  the  subject;  (why?):   has  lost,  the  predicate;    (why?). 


PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  47 

'*Has  lost"   is    modified    by    book,    an    objective    element;    and 
"book"  by  his,  an  adjective  element. 

III.  ''Their  horses  drowned  themselves." 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?). 

Horses  is  the  subject;  (why?):  drowned,  the  predicate; 
(why?).  '* Horses"  is  modified  by  their,  an  adjective  element, 
and  "drowned",  by  themselves,  an  objective  element. 

Substitute  appropriate  pronouns  for  the  dashes  in  the  following 
sentences  : 
1.  Stephen  died  a  martyr  to  faith.     2.  house  to 

was  a  strange  land.     3. said  of son,  " 

is brother".     4.   Let  there   be   no   strife   betwixt  

and .     5. .  Lend —  pen  till write exercise. 

6.  How  much  missed  brother  and  sister.     7. 

say are  friend. 

Write  Jive  sentences,  using  personal  pronouns  as  subjects. 
Model. —  We  are  scholars. 

Write  Jive  sentences,  using  personal  pronouns  as  objects. 
Model.— Henry  admires  them. 

Write   Jive    sentences,    using    personal    pronouns    as    a4Jecti'cre 
elements. 
Model. — His  book  is  in  his  hand. 

Point  out  the  personal  pronouns  in  your  reading  lesson,  using 
this 

MODEL. 
"His  book  is  in  my  desk." 
Ills  is  a  pronoun;  it  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun :  per- 
sonal; it   represents   a  noun,   and  shows  that   it   is   of  the  third 
person. 

My  is  a,  pronoun;  (why?):  personal;  it  represents  a  noun,  and 
shows  that  it  is  of  the  first  person. 


48  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

Questions. — What  is  a  pronoun  ?  A  personal  pronoun?  Name 
some  of  the  personal  pronouns. 

What  js  an  adjective  element  ?  What  is  an  adjective  ?  A  de- 
scriptive adjective?     A  definitive  adjective? 

What  is  a  participle?  The  present  participle?  How  does  it 
end  ?  The  perfect  participle  ?  How  does  it  end  ?  The  compound 
participle  ?     How  is  it  formed  ? 

What  is  the  definite  article?     The  indefinite  article? 

What  is  a  verb  ?  A  transitive  verb  ?  An  intransitive  verb  ?  A 
copulative  verb? 

What  is  an  element?  The  subject?  The  predicate?  The  cop- 
ula?    For  what  is  the  copula  used?     What  is  analysis? 

What  is  a  noun?  A  common  noun?  A  proper  noun?  Can 
you  write  objects?  Can  you  write  the  names  of  objects?  What  is 
an  object  ?    What  is  a  word  ? 

25.  Possessive  Pronouns. 

In  the  sentence,  "This  house  is  ours",  what  is  the  subject? 
"House."  Why?  What  is  the  predicate?  "Ours."  Why? 
It  is  that  which  is  affirmed  of  the  subject.  What  is  the  cop- 
ula?    "Is." 

What  modifies  "house"?  "This",  an  adjective  element. 
What  words  can  be  used  instead  of  "ours"?  "Our  house." 
What  does  the  pronoun  "our"  denote?  It  denotes  that  we 
own  the  house. 

"Ours",  then,  is  used  to  denote  both  the  possessor  and  the 
thing  possessed.  In  this  sentence,  it  represents  both  "our" 
and  "house".  Because  it  does  this,  it  is  called  a  Possessive 
Pronoun. 

Possessive  Pronouns  are  words  used  to  represent 
both  the  possessor  and  the  thing  possessed. 

The  Possessive  Pronouns  are  mine,  thine,  his,  hers,  ours, 
yours,  theirs,  our  own,  &c. 

In  the  sentence,  "That  book  is  his",  what  is  the  predicate? 
"His."  Why?  What  does  it  represent?  It  represents  the 
words  "his  book".  What  is  it?  It  is  a  possessive  pronoun. 
Why?    Because  it  represents  both  the  possessor  and  the  thing 


PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  49 

In  the  sentence,  "That  is  his  book"  what  is  the  predicate? 
"Book."  What  modifies  "book"?  "His",  an  adjective  ele- 
ment. What  is  "his"?  It  is  a  personal  pronoun.  Why  is  it 
not  a  possessive  pronoun?  Because  it  modifies  the  noun  fol- 
lowing it,  and  does  not  represent  both  the  possessor  and  the 
thing  possessed. 

Write  fire  sentences,  using  possessive  pronouns  as  snbjects. 
Model. — His  is  a  hard  lot. 

Wrifp  fire  sentences,  using  possessive  pronouns  as  predicates. 
Model. — That  desk  is  mine. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  using  these 

MODELS. 
I.  "  Ours  is  an  easy  task." 
This  is  a  sentence;  (why?). 

Ours  is  the  subject ;  (why?):  task,  the  predicate ;  (why?):  is 
is  the  copula.  "Task"  is  modified  by  an  and  easy,  both  adjec- 
tive elements. 

II.  "That  factory  is  theirs." 
This  is  a  sentence;  (why?). 

Factory  is  the  subject;  (why?):  theirs,  the  predicate;  fwhy?): 
Is  is  the  copula.  "Factory"  is  modified  by  that* an  adjective 
element. 

III.  "This  land  is  our  own." 
This  is  a  sentence ;  (why?). 

I^and  is  the  subject;  (why?):  our  own,  the  predicate;  (why?). 
"  Land "  is  modified  by  this,  an  adjective  element. 

EXERCISES 

1.  This  book  is  hers.  2.  Those  apples  are  his.  3.  Yours  is 
a  hard  lesson.  4.  Those  marbles  are  mine.  5.  This  book  is 
thine.     6.  The  evenings  are  our  own.     7.  The  victory  is  ours. 


50  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

Point  out  the  possessive  pronouns  in  these  sentences,  using  this 

MODEL. 
"That  book  is  mine." 
Mine  is  a  pronoun;  (why?):   possessive;  it  represents  both  the 
possessor  and  the  thing  possessed :  it  is  equivalent  to  "  my  book ". 

See  whether  there  are  any  possessive  pronouns  in  your  read- 
ing lesson. 

Questions. — What  are  possessive  pronouns?  Name  some  of 
them.  What  is  a  pronoun?  A  personal  pronoun?  What  is  a  par- 
ticiple? The  present  participle?  The  perfect  participle?  The 
compound  participle?  What  is  an  adjective?  A  descriptive  ad- 
jective?    A  definitive  adjective? 

What  is  the  definite  article?  The  indefinite  article?  When 
should  a  and  when  should  an  be  used?  What  is  a  verb?  A  tran- 
sitive verb?     An  intransitive  verb?    A  copulative  verb? 

What  is  a  noun?     A  common  noun?     A  proper  noun? 

What  is  an  element?  The  subject?  The  predicate?  The  ob- 
jective element?    The  adjective  element?    What  is  analysis? 


26.  Relative  Pronouns. 

When  we  say,  "A  rich  man  owns  that  house",  what  ele- 
ment is  the  word  "rich"?     It  is  an  adjective  element.     Why? 

When  we  say,  "A  man  who  is  rich  owns  that  house",  what 
words  do  w^  use  instead  of  "rich"  to  modify  "man"?  We 
use  the  words,  "who  is  rich".  What  element  do  these  words 
form?  An  adjective  element.  Why?  Because  they  modify  a 
noun. 

Is  the  expression,  "who  is  rich",  a  proposition?  It  is. 
Why?  Because  it  has  a  subject  and  a  predicate.  What  is  the 
subject?  "Who."  Why?  What  is  the  predicate?  "Rich." 
Why?    What  is  the  copula? 

What  part  of  speech  is  "who"?  It  is  a  pronoun.  Why? 
It  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun.  Instead  of  what  noun  is 
it  used?    The  noun  "man". 

This  sentence,  then,  contains   two   propositions:   "A   man 


iJ&^'av4uy>^.'  \  i^-jjeA^ ,  n/^rf\/-^  7 '--fM 


PAHTS   OP   SPEECH.  51 

owns  that  house",  and  "who  is  rich";  the  second  proposition 
modifying  the  subject  of  the  first.  Such  a  sentence  is  called 
a  Compleoc  Sentence. 

1.  A  Complex  Sentence  consists  of  a  proposition 
some  part  of  which  is  modified  by  another  proposition. 

The  propositions  of  which  a  complex  sentence  is  composed 
are  called  clauses. 

What  is  the  proposition,  "A  man  owns  that  house"?  It  is 
a  clause.  Why?  It  is  a  proposition  which  forms  a  part  of  a 
complex  sentence.  What  is  the  proposition,  "who  is  rich"? 
It  is  a  clause.     Why? 

The  pronoun  "who"  is  not  only  the  subject  of  the  proposi- 
tion, but  it  also  joins  the  modifying  clause,  "who  is  rich",  to 
the  noun  which  it  limits. 

Those  pronouns  which  represent  preceding  words  or  expres- 
sions, to  which  they  join  modifying  clauses,  are  called  Relative 
Pronouns. 

2.  A  RelatiTe  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  to  repre- 
sent  a  preceding  word  or  expression,  to-^hieh-k  joins 

-^-madrrying-t^attse . 

3.  A  Relative  Clause  is  a  clause  introduced  by  a 
relative  pronoun. 

The  relative  pronouns  are  who,  tvhich,  what,  and  that.  As  is 
also  a  relative  after  the  words  such,  many,  and  same. 

The  suffixes  ever,  so,  and  soever  are  sometimes  added  to  these 
pronouns ;   as,  whoever,  whoso,  whosoever. 

Point   out    the    relative    pronouns    in    the  following   sentences, 
using  this 

MODEL. 

"A  man  who  is  industrious  will  prosper."  ' 

Who  is  a  pronoun;  (why?):   relative;  it  represents  a  preceding 


62  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

word,  to  which  it  joins  a  modifying  clause.     The  word  it  repre- 
sents is  *^nian". 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Tell  me  whom  you  saw.  2.  Those  who  sow  will  reap.  3. 
He  that  hateth,  dissembleth  with  his  lips.  4.  This  is  the  house 
which  my  father  bought. 

5.  I  gave  him  all  that  I  had.  6.  Judge  ye  what  I  say.  7. 
He  will  do  what  is  right.  8.  A  kind  boy  avoids  doing  what- 
ever injures  others.  9.  Whoever  studies,  will  learn.  10.  What- 
ever ye  shall  ask  in  my  name,  that  will  I  do. 

Point  out  Vie  relative  pronouns  \n  your  reading  lessor}. 

Point   out   the    nouns,    a«yeotives,    verbs,   and  personal   pro- 
nouns in  the  above  sentences. 

Substitute  pronouns  for  the  dashes  in  the  following  sentences: 
1.  Death  lifts  the  vail  -^ hides  a  brighter  sphere.    2,  Blest 

are    the    feasts   simple    plenty    crowns.     3.   God, 

in  —  trust. 

4.  The  man  paid  the   money  was  the  cashier. 

5.  The  message  sent  was  received.     6.  No  one  can 

tell  others  may  do.     7.   will  do  is  proper. 

Write  Jive  sentences,  modifying  their  subjects  by  relative  clauses. 
Model.— The  boy  who  studies  will  learn. 

Write  Jive  sentences,  modifying  their  obJeotN  by  relative  clauses. 
Model. — I  have  lost  the  book  which  you  gave  me. 

Analyze  the  foregoing  sentences,  using  these 

MODELS. 
I.  "The  fish  which  you  caught, is  a  trout." 
This  is  a  sentence;  (why?). 
Flsb  is  the  subject;   (why?):    front,  the  predicate ;    (why?): 


PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  58 

Is  is  the  copula.     "Fish"  is  modified  by  the  and  whicb   yoa 
caug^lit,  both  adjective  elements. 

II.  "I  remember  what  you  said." 
This  is  a  sentence;  (why?). 

I  is  the  subject;   (why?):    remember,  the  predicate;  (why?). 
'*  Remember"  is  modified  by  wbat  you  said,  an  objective  element. 


Questions. — What  is  a  clause?  What  is  a  relative  pronoun? 
What  is  a  relative  clause?  Name  the  relative  pronouns.  What 
terminations  are  sometimes  added  to  these  pronouns? 

What  are  possessive  pronouns  ? 

WJiat  is  a  pronoun  ?     A  personal  pronoun  ? 

Wniat  is  a  participle?  Tlie  present  participle?  The  perfect 
participle?  The  compound  participle?  What  is  the  ending  of  the 
present  participle?  Of  the  perfect  participle?  How  is  the  com- 
pound participle  formed? 

What  is  an  adjective?  A  descriptive  adjective?  A  definitive 
adjective?  What  is  the  definite  article?  The  indefinite  article? 
W^hat  is  a  verb?  A  transitive  verb?  An  intransitive  verb?  A 
copulative  verb  ? 

What  is  a  noun  ?     A  common  noun  ?     A  proper  noun  ? 


27.  Interrogative  Pronouns. 

In  the  sentences:  "Who  is  that  man?"  "Which  cornea 
first?"  "What  is  he?",  what  words  are  used  instead  of  the 
answers  to  the  questions?  The  words  "who",  "which",  and 
"what". 

These  words,  together  with  ivhose  and  whom,  when  used  in 
asking  questions,  are  called  Interrogative  Pronouns, 

An  Interrogatii'e  Pronoun  is  one  used  in  asking 
questions. 

The  interrogative  pronouns  which  and  what  are  sometimes 
placed  before  nouns.  They  are  then  called  Interrogative  Ad- 
jectives. 

Ex.— "Which  road  shall  I  take?"  The  word  "which"  is  an 
interrogative     adjective,    modifying    "road".      "What    noise    is 


54  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

that?"     The  word  "what"  is  an  interrogative   adjective,  modify- 
ing  "noise". 

Point  out   the    interro§raUve    pronouns   in    the  following  sen- 
tences, using  this 

MODEL. 
"Who  visited  your  school  yesterday?" 

Il'lio  is  a  p'onoun;  (why?):  interrogative/  it  is  used  in  asking 
a  question. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  What  did  he  say?  2.  Who  wrote  that  letter?  3.  Which 
trots  the  fastest?  4.  Whom  did  you  call?  5.  Whose  house 
was  burned?  6.  What  can  he  mean?  7.  Who  has  learned 
this  lesson?  8.  Who  discovered  America?  9.  Who  borrowed 
John's  slate?     10.  Whose  book  is  this? 

Point  out  the    nouns,    adjectives,    verbs,    and   personal    pro- 

in  these  sentences. 


See  whether  there  are  any  interrogative   pronouns   or  inter- 
rogrative  adjectives  in  your  reading  lesson. 

Analyze  the  foregoing  sentences,  using  this 

MODEL. 
"Whom  can  you  trust?" 
This  is  a  sentence;  (why?). 

You  is  the  subject;  (why?):  can  trust,  the  predicate;  (why?). 
"Can  trust"  is  modified  by  wliom,  an  objective  element. 


Questions. — W^hat  is  an  interrogative  pronoun?  W^hat  words 
are  used  as  interrogative  pronouns?  W^hich  of  these  are  some- 
times used  as  interrogative  adjectives? 

What  is  a  clause?  A  relative  pronoun?  A  relative  clause? 
Name  the  relative  pronouns. 

What  are  possessive  pronouns?     Name  some  of  them. 

W^hat  is  a  pronoun?  A  personal  pronoun?  Name  some  of 
them. 


PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  55 


^-      \  28.  The  Adverb. 

\ 

In  the  sentence,  "Birds  sing  sweetly",  does  the  word 
"sweetly"  denote  what  the  birds  sing?  It  does  not:  it  tells 
how  they  sing.  Does  it  complete  the  meaning  of  the  verb 
"sing",  like  an  objective  element?  It  does  not:  it  modifies 
it  in  another  way. 

In  the  sentence,  "Very  large  vessels  were  seen",  what  is 
modified  by  "very"?  The  word  "large".  What  is  "large"? 
It  is  an  adjective. 

In  the  sentence,  "He  rode  quite  fast",  what  word  tells  how 
he  rode?  The  word  "fast".  What  word  tells  how  fast  he 
rode?    The  word  " quite ". 

Words  used  in  this  manner  are  called  Adverbs. 
1.    An  AdTerb  is   a  word  used   to  modify  a  verb, 
adjective,  participle,  or  adverb. 

A  group  of  words  used  like  an  adverb  is  called  an  Adverbial 
Element. 

2.)  An  AdTerbial  Element  is  a  word  or  group  of 
words  used  to  modify  a  verb,  adjective,  participle,  or 
adverb. 
Point  out  the  adverbs  in  the  following  sentences,  using  this 

MODEL. 
"The  wind  blew  furiously." 
Furioasly  is  an  adverb;  it  is  used  to  modify  a  verb. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  That  vessel  sails  slowly.  2.  He  built  a  house  there.  3. 
Emma  is  quite  unwell.  4.  Those  mountains  are  very  high. 
5.  We  were  agreeably  surprised.  6.  I  will  shortly  return.  7. 
You  will  never  see  him  again.  8.  I  would  gladly  pardon  you. 
9.  So  thought  Palmyra.     10.  He  afterward  escaped. 


56  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

Point  out  the  nouus,  verbs,  pronouns^  and  adjectives  in  these 
sentences. 

Point  out  the  adverbs  in  your  reading  lesson. 

Write  seven  sentences,  modifying  their  predicates  by  adverbs. 
Model. — We  should  walk  quietly. 

Write  seven  sentejices,  modifying  their  subjects  by  adjectives,  and 
those  adjectives  by  adverbs. 
Model. —  Very  loud  reports  were  heard. 

Write  seven  seiitences,  modifying  their  predicates  by  adverbs,  and 
those  adverbs  by  other  adverbs. 
Model. — He  walks  quite  slowly. 

Analyze  the  above  exercises,  using  these 

MODELS. 
I.  "Our  house  is  very  small." 
This  is  a  sentence;  (why?). 

House  is  the  subject;  (why?):  small,  the  predicate;  (why?): 
is  is  the  copula.  "House"  is  modified  by  our,  an  adjective  ele- 
ment: "small",  by  very,  an  adverbial  element. 

n.  "We  should  study  our  lessons  carefully." 

This  is  a  sentence/  (why?). 

We  is  the  subject;  (why?):  should  study,  the  predicate; 
(why?).  "Should  study"  is  modified  by  lessons,  an  objective 
element,  and  by  carefully,  an  adverbial  element:  "lessons"  is 
modified  by  our,  an  adjective  element. 


Questions. — What  is  an  adverb?  What  do  adverbs  usually 
denote?     Wliat  is  an  adverbial  element? 

What  is  a  pronoun  ?  A  personal  pronoun  ?  A  possessive  pro- 
noun? A  clause?  A  relative  pronoun?  A  relative  clause?  An 
interrogative  pronoun?  What  are  which  and  what  called  when 
placed  before  nouns? 

Give  the  directions  for  writinij  sentences. 


PARTS    OF    SPEECH. 


57 


29.  The  Preposition. 

In  the  sentence,  "A  man  of  wealth  rode  by  our  house", 
what  does  the  group  of  words  "of  wealth"  modify?  It  modi- 
fies the  noun  "man".  What  element  is  it?  It  is  an  adjective 
element.     Why?    Because  it  modifies  a  noun. 

What  does  the  group  of  words  "by  our  house"  modify?  It 
modifies  the  verb  "rode":  it  tells  lohere  he  rode.  What  ele- 
ment is  it?  It  is  an  adverbial  element.  Why?  Because  it 
modifies  a  verb. 

The  word  "of"  connects  the  noun  "wealth"  to  the  noun 
"man".  The  word  "by"  connects  the  noun  "house"  with  the 
verb  "rode". 

They  are  said  to  show  the  relations  between  the  worda 
which  they  connect. 

They  are  called  Prepositions,  and  the  nouns  which  follow 
them  are  called  their  objects. 

1.  A  Preposition  is  a  word  used  to  show  the  rela- 
tion betw;een  its  object  and  some  other  word. 

LIST    OF    PREPOSITIONS. 


A  =  at,  on,  or  in, 

At, 

Ere, 

Since, 

Aboard, 

Athwart, 

Except, 

Till,  until, 

About, 

Before, 

For, 

Through, 

Above, 

Behind, 

From, 

Throughout, 

According  to, 

Beside, 

In, 

To, 

Across, 

Besides, 

Into, 

Toward, 

After, 

Beneath, 

Of, 

Towards, 

Against, 

Between, 

Off, 

Under, 

Along, 

Betwixt, 

On, 

Unto, 

Amid, 

Beyond, 

Out  of, 

Up, 

Among, 

But, 

Over, 

Upon, 

Amongst, 

By, 

Past, 

With, 

Around, 

Down, 

Round, 

Within, 

As  to, 

During, 

Save, 

Without. 

58  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

When  two  prepositions  come  together  they  form  a  com- 
plex preposition. 

2.    A  Preposition  and  its  object  form  a  Phrase. 

Point  out  the  prepositions  in  the  following  sentences,  using  this 

MODEL. 
"  He  came  from  France  to  America," 
From  is  a  preposition;  it  shows  the  relation  between  its  object 
and  some  other  word.     It  shows  the   relation  between  "France" 
and  "came". 

To  is  a  preposition;  (why?):  it  shows  the  relation  between 
"America"  and  "came". 

EXERCISES. 

1.  The  old  man  was  often  in  want  of  the  necessaries  of  life. 
2.  The  boy  went  through  the  gate  into  the  garden.  3.  Be  not 
forward  in  the  presence  of  your  superiors.  '4.  He  was  not,  at 
that  time,  in  the  city.  5.  He  drove  over  the  bridge  into  the 
city.  6.  He  went  to  the  doctor  for  advice.  7.  The  path 
brought  them  to  the  end  of  the  wood.  8.  She  turned  to  the 
old  man  with  a  lovely  smile  upon  her  face.  9.  The  light 
came  through  the  stained  windows  of  the  old  church. 

Point  out  the  nouns,  yerbs,  adjectives,  and  pronouns  in  these 
sentences. 

Point  out  the  prepositions  in  your  reading  lesson. 
Analyze  the  following  seiitences,  using  this 

MODEL. 
"Habits  of  industry  will  lead  to  prosperity." 
This  is  a  sentence;  (why?). 

Habits  is  the  subject;  (why?):  will  lead,  the  predicate; 
(why?).  "Habits"  is  modified  by  the  phrase  of  industry,  an 
adjective  element:  "will  lead"  is  modified  by  the  phrase  to 
prosperity,  an  adverbial,  element. 


PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  59 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Light  moves  in  straight  lines.  2.  They  went  aboard  the 
ship.  3.  I  differ  from  you  on  that  point.  4.  The  two  thieves 
divided  the  money  ^between  them.  5,  The  ship  was  driven 
upon  the  rocks. 

6.  Our  sincerest  laughter  is  fraught  with  some  pain.  7.  The 
young  lambs  are  bleating  in  the  meadows.  8.  They  came  to 
the  country  of  the  free.  9.  I  will  divide  this  farm  among  my 
three  sons.  10.  Man  goeth  to  his  long  home.  11.  The  sleep 
of  a  laboring  man  is  sweet. 


Questions. — What  is  a  preposition  ?  What  is  the  object  of  a 
preposition  ?     What  is  a  phrase  ? 

What  is  an  adverb  ?  What  do  adverbs  usually  denote  ?  What 
js  an  adverbial  element  ? 

What  is  a  pronoun  ?  A  ^personal  pronoun  ?  A  possessive  pro- 
noun ?  A  relative  pronoun  ?  An  interrogative  pronoun  ?  <\ 
clause?     A  relative  clause? 

What  is  a  verb?  A  transitive  verb?  An  intransitive  verb?  A 
copulative  verb  ? 

What  is  a  participle  ?  The  present  participle  ?  The  perfect 
participle  ?     The  compound  participle  ? 

What  is  an  adjective?  A  descriptive  adjective?  A  definitive 
adjective  ? 

What  is  a  noun  ?  A  common  noun  ?  A  proper  noun  ?  Which 
pf  these  should  always  commence  with  a  capital  letter? 


30.  The  Conjunction. 

In  the  sentence,  "Ellen  and  Mary  study  botany",  what  two 
words  are  used  as  the  subject?  "Ellen"  and  "Mary".  Wky? 
Because  something  is  affirmed  of  them :  both.  Ellen  and  Mary 
study  botany.     What  word  joins  them?     The  word  "and". 

In  the  sentence,  "Ellen  or  Mary  studies  botany",  what  two 
words  are. used  as  the  subject?  "Ellen"  and  "Mary".  Are 
both  represented  as  studying  botany?  They  are  not ^  if  E^Ten 
studies  botany,  Mary  does  not.  What  word  joiop^b^ai^  The 
word  "or".  *  ff'V      ^. 


itim-^. 


60  ELEMENTARY    GRAMxMAR. 

In  the  statement,  "  Ellen  will  study  botany  if  Mary  studies 
algebra",  how  many  sentences  are  there?  There  are  two: 
■'Ellen  will  study  botany",  and  ''Mary  studies  algebra". 
What  word  is  used  to  connect  these  two  sentences?  The 
word  "if". 

The  words  "and",  "or",  "if",  and  all  other  words  used 
merely  to  join  words,  phrases,  clauses,  and  members  are  called 
Conjunctions. 

1.  A  Conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words, 
phrases,  clauses,  and  members. 

Conjunctions  merely  connect  words,  they  do  not  express 
relations,  like  prepositions. 

Two  or  more  parts  of  the  same  proposition,  connected  by 
conjunctions,  form  a  compound  element. 

2.  A  Compound  Oement  consists  of  two  or  more 
parts  of  the  same  proposition  connected  by  con- 
junctions. 

Ex. — "James  and  Samuel  are  kind,  honest,  and  faithful." 
"James"  and  "Samuel"  are  the  parts  of  the  compound  subject: 
"kind",  "honest",  and  "faithful"  are  the  -parts  of  the  compound 
predicate. 

The  comma  [,]  is  omitted  after  "James"  because  two 
parts  only  are  connected;  it  is  inserted  after  "kind"  and 
"honest",  because  more  than  two  parts  of  a  compound  ele« 
ment  are  connected. 

nireetions  for  Writing:. — When  a  compound  element  con-' 
sists  of  more  than  two  parts, 

1st.  Place  a  comma  after  each  part  except  the  last. 

2d.  Use  the  conjunction  between  the  last  two  parts  only. 

Point  out  the  conjunctions  in  your  reading  lesson. 


PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  61 

Point  out  the  conjanetions  in  the  following  sentences^  using  this 

MODEL. 
"Eli  and  iSilas  will  improve,  if  they  study." 
And  is  a  conjunction;  it  is  a  word  Used  to  connect  words:   it 
connects  "Eli"  and  "Silas". 

If  is  a  conjunction;  (why?):  it  connects  the  sentences,  "Eli  and 
Silas  will  improve"  and  ''they  study". 

EXERCISES. 

1.  We  moved  along  silently  and  cautiously.  2.  I  consent 
to  the  constitution,  because  I  expect  no  better.  3.  He  heaped 
up  great  riches,  but  passed  his  time  miserably.  4.  He  is  both 
learned  and  wise.     5.  I  shall  not  go,  if  it  rain. 

6.  Cold  and  hunger  awake  not  her  care.  7.  They  submit, 
since  they  can  not  conquer.  8.  He  has  many  faults,  still  he 
is  very  popular.  9.  Emma  or  Susan  will  remain  at  home. 
10.  Neither  Clara  nor  Jane  was  in  the  room. 

Point  out  all  the  parts  of  speech  in  these  sentences. 

Analyze  the  above  sentences,  using  this 

MODEL. 
"He  came  and  went  like  a  pleasant  thought." 
This  is  a  sentence;  (why?). 

He  is  the  subject;  (why?):  came  and  went,  the  compound 
predicate;  it  is  that  which  is  affirmeii  of  the  subject.  The  com- 
pound predicate  is  modified  by  the  phrase,  like  a  pleasant 
tbought,  an  adverbial  element:  "thought"  is  modified  by  a  and 
pleasant,  adjective  elements. 


Qnestjons. — What  is  a  conjunction?  What  is  the  difference 
between  a  conjunction  and  a  preposition?  What  is  a  compound 
element?     Give  the  directions  for  writing  a  compound  element. 

What  is  a  preposition?  What  is  the  object  of  a  preposition? 
What  is  a  phrase? 

What  is  an  adverb  ?     What  is  an  adverbial  element  ?    " 


62  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

31.  The  luterjectioii. 

-_i        '^Bhirral  we  have  found  him." 

Is  this  a  sentence?  It  is.  Wh^t  is  the  subject?  The  pro- 
noun "we".  What  is  the  predicate?  "Have  found."  What 
modifies  the  predicate?  The  pronoun  "him",  an  objective 
element. 

What  does  the  word  "hurra"  denote?  It  denotes  that  the 
speaker  or  writer  is  highly  pleased.  Does  it  affirm  or  deny- 
any  thing?  It  does  not:  it  simply  implies  a  feeling  or  emo- 
tion of  pleasure. 

There  are  words,  also,  used  to  denote  sorrow,  grief,  surprise, 
disgust,  pity,  hatred,  &c. 

All  such  words  are  called  Interjections. 

An  Interjeotioii  is  a  word  used  to  denote  some 
sudden  or  strong  emotion. 

Interjections  usually,  but  not  always,  require  an  exclama- 
tion point  [  I  j  after  them. 

Point  Old  the  Jnterjections   in  each  of  the  following  sentences, 
rising  this  , 

MODEL. 
"Hush!   they  are  coming." 
Hash  is  an  interjection;  it  denotes  some  sudden  emotion. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Hal  it  freezes  me.  2.  Aha!  you  are  a  truant,  I  see. 
3.  Ahem  I  I  will  think  about  it.  4.  Hark !  the  clock  strikes 
one.  5.  Pshaw  !  I  knew  that  long  ago.  6.  Alas !  we  shall 
see  him  no  more. 

7.  Tush!  tush!  man,  I  made/no  reference  to  you.  8.  Ay, 
every  inch  a  king.     9.  0,  wh^t  a  noble  mind  is  here  o'er- 


PARtS    OF    SPEECH.  63 

thrown!  10.  Alas!  they  had  been  friends  in  youth.  11. 
Hark!  hark!  the  lar.k  at  heaven's  gate  sings.  12.  Alas!  for 
the  rarity  of  Christian  charity.   _ 

Point  out  all  the  parts  of  speech  in  the  above  sentences. 

Point  out  the  interjections  in  your  reading  lesson. 


Qnestions. — What  is  an  interjection  ?  What  should  usually 
be  placed  after  an  interjection  ? 

What  is  a  conjunction?  W^hat  is  a  compound  element?  Give 
the  directions  for  writing  a  compound  element. 

What  is  a  preposition?  What  is  the  object  of  a  preposition? 
What  is  a  phrase? 

What  is  an  adverb  ?    An  adverbial  element  ? 


32.  Classes  of  Sentences. 

Sentences  may  be  used  to  declare  something,  to  ask  questions^ 
to  express  commands,  or  to  denote  emotian. 

1.  There  are  four  classes  of  sentences  :  Declarative, 
Interrogative,  Imperative,  and  Exclamatory. 

2.  A  Deelarative  Sentence  is  one  used  to  affirm 
or  deny  something ;  as,  Fishes  stvim.  Fishes  do  not 
walk. 

3.  An  Interrc^atiTe  Sentence  is  one  used  to  ask 
a  question  ;    as,  Are  you  sick  ?     Where  do  you  live  ? 

4.  An  Imperative  Sentence  is  one  used  to  express 
a  command  or  an  entreaty;  as,  Come  here.  Do  not 
strike  me. 

5.  An  Exclamatory  Sentence  is  one  used  in  ex- 
clamations, or  in  the  expression  of  strong  emotion; 
as,  Oh,  how  glad  I  am  to  see 


64  ELExMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

Tell  the  different  kinds  of  sentences  in  your  reading  lesson,  using 
these 

MODELS. 
I.    "  Attend  to  the  duties  I  have  assigned  you." 
This  is  a  sentence;   (why?):    imperative;  it  is  used  to  express  a 
command. 

II.    "When  was  America  discovered?" 
This  is  a  sentence;   (why?);    inierrogative ;   it  is  used  to  ask  a 
question. 

Qnestions^ — How  many  classes  of  sentences  are  there  ?  Name 
them.  What  is  a  declarative  sentence?  An  interrogative  sen- 
tence ?    An  imperative  sentence  ?    An  exclamatory  sentence  ? 

33.  Review. 

1.  We  have  now  learned  that  there  are  nine  Parts 
of  Speech;  viz.,  Noun,  Verb,  Adjective,  Participle, 
Pronoun,  Adverb,  Preposition,  Conjunction,  Inter- 
jection. 

2.  We  have  also  learned  that  a  sentence  may  con- 
tain  five  Elements. 

3.  The  Principal  Slemente  are  the  Subject  and 
the  Predicate. 

4.  The  Subordinate  Elements  are  the  Objective, 
Adjective,  and  Adverbial  Elements. 

Before  proceeding  farther,  be  sure  that  you  can  answer  all 
the  following 

QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. 


How  many  senses  have  we  ? 
Name  them.  How  do  we  ob- 
tain  a    knowledge    of  material 


things?  Cnn  we  perceive  things 
which  are  not  material  ?  What 
is  an  object  ?     What  is  a  word  ? 


PARTS    OF    SPEECH, 


65 


What  is  language  "i*  Spoken 
language  ?  Written  language  ? 
Grammar?    English  grammar? 

What  are  parts  of  speech  ? 
How  many  parts  of  speech  are 
there?  Name  them.  How  do 
you  determine  the  class  to  which 
any  word  belongs  ? 

What  is  a  noun  ?  A  common 
noun?  A  proper  noun?  Give 
examples  of  each  class.  Which 
should  commence  with  capital 
letters?  Can  you  write  objects? 
Can  you  write  the  names  of  ob- 
jects? 

What  is  a  sentence?  A  prop- 
osition? How  many  classes  of 
sentences  are  there?  Nametliem. 
What  is  a  declarative  sentence  ? 
An  interrogative  sentence  ?  An 
imperative  sentence?  An  ex- 
clamatory sentence?  Give  the 
directions  for  writing  sentences. 

What  is  the  subject  of  a  prop- 
osition ?  The  predicate  ?  The 
copula?  What  does  the  word 
copula  mean? 

What  are  quality-words  ?  Can 
they  be  used  as  predicates?  Give 
an  example.  Give  an  example 
of  a  noun  used  as  a  predicate. 
What  do  predicate-nouns  de- 
note? 

What  is  an  element?  What 
are  the  principal  elements?  Is 
the  copula  an  element  ?  What 
is  its  use?  What  are  the  sub- 
ordinate elements  ?  What  is 
analysis  ? 

E    G— 5. 


What  is  a  verb  ?  What  does 
it  usually  express  ?  What  is  a 
transitive  verb?  An  intransi- 
tive verb  ?  A  copulative  verb  ? 
Is  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb 
always  expressed?  What  is  an 
objective  element? 

What  is  an  adjective  ?  A  de- 
scriptive adjective?  A  defini- 
tive adjective?  What  adjectives 
should  always  commence  wilh 
capitals? 

What  words  are  called  ar- 
ticles? What  is  the  definite  ar- 
ticle? The  indefinite  article? 
When  is  a  used  ?  When  is  an 
used  ? 

What  is  a  participle?  Why 
is  it  called  a  participle?  How 
many  participles  are  there? 
Name  them.  Wheh  is  a  par- 
ticiple ealled  active  f  When  jkis- 
sive  f  What  does  the  present  par- 
ticiple denote?  How  does  the 
present  active  participle  end? 
What  does  the  perfect  participle 
denote?  How  does  it  usually 
end  ?  What  does  the  compound 
participle  denote  ?  What  is  the 
"principal  verb"?  How  is  the 
compound  participle  formed  ? 

What  is  an  adjective  element  ? 
Can  nouns  be  used  as  adjective 
elements?     Give  examples. 

What  is  a  pronoun  ?  A  per- 
sonal pronoun?  Name  some  of 
the  personal  pronouns. 

What  are  possessive  pronouns? 
Name  some  of  them. 


66 


ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 


What  is  a  clause  ?    A  relative 


pronoun 


A    relative    clause  ? 


I»Ianie  the  relative  pronouns. 
What  terminations  are  sorae^ 
times  annexed  to  these  pro- 
nouns ? 

What  is  an  interrogative  pro- 
noun? Name  them.  Which  of 
these  are  sometimes  interroga- 
tive adjectives  ? 

What  is  an  adverb  ?  What  do 
adverbs  usually  denote  ?  What 
is  an  adverbial  element  ? 


What  is  a  preposition?  What 
is  the  object  of  a  preposition? 
AVhat  is  a  phrase  ? 

What  is  a  conjunction?  What 
is  the  difference  between  a  con- 
junction and  a  preposition? 
What  is  a  compound  element? 
Give  the  directions  for  writing 
a  compound  element. 

What  is  an  interjection?  What 
mark  of  punctuation  should  usu- 
ally be  placed  after  an  inter- 
jection? 


NOUNS.  67 


PART    III. 
SYNTAX-PARSING. 

THE  NOUN. 

To  nouns'  belong   Gender,  Person,  ;^^nniber,  and 
Case. 

34.  Gender. 

1.  Gender  is  a  distinction   of  nouns   or  pronouns 
with  regard  to  sex. 

2.  There    are  four  genders :    Masculine,  Feminine, 
Common,  and  Neuter. 

3.  The  Mascnline  Gender  denotes  males;   as,  fa- 
ther, king,  governor. 

4.  The    Feminine   Gender    denotes    females ;    as, 
mother,  queen,  governess. 

5.  The  Common  Gender  denotes  either  males  or 
females ;    as,  children,  parent,  cattle. 

6.  The  l^enter  Gender  denotes  neither  males  nor 
females ;    as,  stove,  pen,  locomotive. 


68  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

7.  There  are  three  ways  of  distinguishing  the  masculine 
and  feminine  genders : 

1.  By  using  different  words;  as,  father,  mother;  brother, 
sister;  boy,  girl;  gentleman,  lady;  Mr.,  Mrs.;  Charles,  Caro- 
line; drake,  duck;  hart,  roe. 

2.  By  different  terminations;  as,  actor,  actress;  executor, 
executrix ;  hero,  heroine. 

3.  By  joining  some  distinguishing  word;  as,  man-servant, 
maid-servant;  he-bear,  she-bear;  landlord,  landlady;  mer- 
man, mermaid. 

EXERCISES. 
Tell  the  grender  of  the  following  nouns: 

Baker,  milliner,  poet,  father,  aunt,  nephew,  cart,  Susan, 
Joseph,  duke,  countess,  administratrix,  madam,  president, 
empress. 

Give  the  corresponding  masculine  or  feminine  for  the  follow- 
ing nouns: 

Grandfather,  uncle,  niece,  count,  widow,  prophet,  sorcerer, 
earl,  •  female,  hen-sparrow,  Miss  Jones,  Augusta,  Francis, 
mediator. 

Write  five  sentences,  usi7ig  mascnline  nouns  as  subjects. 
Model. — John  left  his  book  on  my  desk. 

Write  five  sentences,  using  feminine  nouns  as  objects. 
Model. — The  teacher  sent  my  sister  home  at  recess. 

Write  six  sentences,  using  nouns  in  the  common  or  neuter  gender 
as  subjects  or  objects. 

Model. — A  beggar  frightened  me  this  morning. 
Tell  the  gender  of  all  the  nouns  in  your  reading  lesson. 


NOUNS.  69 


4|iiestions. — What  is  a  noun?  A  common  noun?  A  proper 
noun?  What  belong  to  nouns?  What  is  gender?  How  many 
genders  are  there?  What  is  the  masculine  gender?  The  feminine 
gender  ?  The  common  gender  ?  The  neuter  gender  ?  How  many 
ways  are  there  of  distinguishing  the  masculine  and  feminine  gen- 
ders?    Give  them. 


35.  Pei'soH. 

1.  Person  is  that  property  of  a  noun  or  pronoun 
which  distinguishes  the  speaker,  the  person  spoken  to, 
and  the  person  or  object  spoken  of. 

2.  There  are  three  persons :  First,  Second,  and 
Third. 

3.  The  First  Person  denotes  the  speaker;  as,  "/, 
Geo.  IV'';   ^^We  are  contented  with  our  lot". 

4.  The  l^»eeond  Person  denotes  the  person  ad- 
dressed; as,  ''^  James,  shut  the  door";  ^'"You  are  care- 
less". 

5.  The  Tliird  Person  denotes  the  object  spoken 
of;    as,  "My  father  sold  his  farm  this  morning.'' 

EXERCISES. 

Tell  the   person   of  the  nouns  and  pronouns   in  the  followinfj 
sentences  : 

1.  My  lesson  is  learned.  2.  Have  you  seen  our  old  friend 
lately?  3.  Ellen,  tell  your  sister  to  come  home.  4.  I  saw  him 
on  the  battle  eve.  5.  They  left  the  plowshare  in  the  mold. 
6,  Your  horse  is  in  our  barn,  Mr.  Eckel.  7.  He  left  home 
early  in  the  morning. 

Tell  the  person  of  the  nouns  and  pronouns  in  your  reading  lesson. 


70  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

Write  five  sentences,  using  nouns  or  pronouns  of  the  first  person 

as  subjects,  predicates,  or  objects. 

Model. —  We  are  pupils.     /  defended  myself. 

Write  five  sentences,   using   nouns   or   pronouns    of  the    second 
person  as  subjects  or  objects. 

Model. —  You  may  be  excused.     I  envy  thee. 

Write  five  sentences,  using  nouns  or  pronouns  of  the  third  person 

OS  subjects,  predicates,  or  objects. 

Models. — Studious  pupils  learn  long  lessons  easily.     They  left 
their  homes  in  sorrow. 


Q,uestions. — What  is  person?  How  many  persons  are  there? 
Define  them.  What  is  gender ?  The  masculine  gender?  The  fem- 
inine gender?  The  common  gender?  Tlie  neuter  gender?  What 
belong  to  nouns? 


36.  Number. 

Nouns  may  denote  one  object  or  more  than  one.  Thus, 
"house"  denotes  one  object;  "houses",  more  than  one:  "ox" 
denotes  one  object;   "oxen",  more  than  one. 

This  modification  or  use  of  a  noun  is  called  Number. 

1.  dumber  is  that  property  of  a  noun  or  pronoun 
which  distinguishes  one  from  more  than  one. 

2.  There  are  two  numbers :  Singular  and  Plural, 

3.  The  lingular  ^^uinber  denotes  but  one ;  as, 
hoy.,  girl.,  apple. 

4.  The  Plural  Bfumber  denotes  more  than  one ; 
as,  hoySy  gi^ls^  apples. 


37.  Formation  of  the  Plural. 

1.  Nouns  whose  last  sound  will  unite  with  5,  form  their 
plurals  by  adding  8  only  to  the  singular ;  as,  book,  books;  boy, 
boys;  desk,  desks. 

2.  Nouns  whose  last  sound  will  not  unite  with  s,  form  their 
plurals  by  adding  es  to  the  singular;  as,  bush  bushes;  box, 
boxes. 

3.  Nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant,  change  y 
into  ies;  as,  mercy,  mercies. 

4.  Some  nouns  ending  in  /  or  fe,  change  these  endings 
into  ves;  as,  knife,  knives. 

5.  Most  nouns  ending  in  o,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  add 

es;  as,  cargo,  cargoes. 

6.  Nouns  ending  in  o,  preceded  by  a  vowel,  add  s;  as, 
folio,  folios. 

7.  Letters,  figures,  marks,  and  signs  add  's;  as,  p's  and  q^s; 
9's  and  IVs;  the  *'«/  the  |'s  and  9's. 

8.  Proper  nouns  usuafly  add  s  only  in  forming  their  plu- 
rals; as,  Mary,  Marys;  Sarah,  Sarahs;  Nero,  Neros.  The  forms 
Maries y  Neroes,  &c.,  are  sometimes  used. 

9.  '^lost  nouns   from    foreign   langua 


r€L^ 


or^cey;  as,  calculus,  calculi;  arcanum,  arcana;  phenomenon, 
phenomena ;  thesis,  theses;  ephemeris,  ephemerides. 

10.  Some  nouns  form  their  plurals  irregularly;  as,  man, 
men;  ox,  oxen;  mouse,  mice. 

11.  A  few  nouns  are  alike  in  both  numbers ;  as,  slieep,  deer, 
trout,  yoke,  hosej  vermin,  and  others. 

12.  In  compound  words,  the  part  described  by  the  rest  is 
generally  pluralized;  as,  6ro^Ae/'«-in-law,  cowr/s-martial,  ox- 
earts. 


72  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

13.  Nouns  ending  in  fid  or  full,  fofm  their  plurals  by  add- 
ing s  to  the  singular;  as,  handfuls,  mouthfuls. 

EXERCISES. 
Write  the  plurals  of  the  following  nouns  : 

Plow,  rake,  wrench,  hoe,  calf,  turf,  tooth,  chimney,  clam, 
cameo,  vase,  glory,  folly,  embargo,  woman,  child,  armful,  tariff', 
tax,  studio,  mischief,  a,  b,  c,  T|,  f,  incubus,  radix,  John, 
Charles,  creature,  reply,  salmon,  horse,  wagon-load,  momen- 
tum, tooth,  analysis. 

Write  the  siugrular  of  the  following  nouns: 

Horses,  oxen,  men,  children,  pence,  badges,  loaves,  feet, 
mice,  genii,  beauties,  geese,  judges,  heroes,  ellipses,  strata, 
rubies,  errata,  valleys,  folios. 

Tell  the  number  of  all  the  nouns  in  your  reading  lesson. 


Questional. — What  is  number?  How  many  numbers  are  there? 
What  is  the  singular  number?  The  plural  number?  Repeat  the 
rules  for  the  formation  of  the  plural.  What  is  person?  Tiie  first 
person?  The  second  person?  The  third  person?  What  is  gender? 
The  masculine  gender?  The  feminine  gender?  The  common  gen- 
der ?     The  neuter  gender  ? 


38.  Case. 

"The  sun  is  shining":  here  *'sun"  is  used  as  the  subject 
of  a  proposition.  "Every  star  is  a  sun":  here  "sun"  is  used 
as  the  predicate.  "The  sun's  rays  are  warm":  here  "sun"  is 
used  as  an  adjective  element,  modifying  "rays".  "We  saw 
the  sun  at  noon"  :  here  "sun"  is  used  as  an  objective  element, 
modifying  "saw".  "Dear  is  thy  light,  O  sun!"  here  "sun" 
is  used  absolutely — i  e.,  it  is  absolved  or  separated  from  any 
grammatical  connection  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 


NOUNS.  73 

In  no  two  of  these  sentences  has  the  word  "  sun  "  the  same 
relation  to  the  other  words. 

These  different  relations  are  called  Cases. 

1.  Case  is  the  relation  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  to 
other  words. 

2.  There  ai*c  four  cases  :  Nominative,  Possessive,  Ob- 
jective, and  AhmluUi 

3.  The  Nominative  €'ase  is  the  use  of  a  noun  or 
pronoun  as  the  subject  or  the  predicate  of  a  proposi- 
tion ;   as,  Boys  skate ;   Horses  are  animals. 

4.  The  Possessive  Case  is  the  use  of  a  noun  or 
pronoun  to   denote   ownership^  a^ttborship,   oiHgiR,— ^ 

<dct^ ;    as,  John^s  hat,  Ray^s  Algebra,  the  suns  rays, 
men's  clothing. 

The.  Possessive  Case  Singular  is  formed  by  annexing  ^s  to 
the  nominative;   as,  Ellen's,  Charleses. 

A  few  singular  nouns,  ending  with  s  or  ce,  form  their  pos- 
sessive case  by  adding  the  apostrophe  only ;  as,  goodness^  sake, 
conscience'  sake. 

The  Possessive  Case  Plural  is  formed  by  annexing  the  apos- 
trophe only,  when  the  nominative  plural  ends  in  s;  as,  boys', 
"The  Teachers'  Association". 

Plural  nouns  not  ending  with  s,  form  their  possessive  case 
by  annexing  's/  as,  men^s  hats. 

5.  The  Objective  Case  is  the  use  of  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun as  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  in  the  active 
voice,  or  of  a  preposition ;  as,  "  Indians  hunt  buffa- 
loes'';  "They  ran  over  the  bridge";  "John  threw  a 
stone  at  the  dog". 


74  ELEMEJSPTARY    GRAMMAR. 

6.  The  Absolute  Case  is  the  use  of  a  noun  or  pro- ,, 
noun  jmdependent  of  any  relatian  to  other^woeda ;  a^, 

^Oh,  my  son'';  '^Soldiers,  attention".  _^--'"^^^ 

R«m. — A  noun  may  be  in  the  absolute  case: 

1.  By  direct  address;  as,  "James,  bring  me  a  book" 

2.  £i/  exclamation;  as,  "Oh,  my  daughter/" 

3.  By  pleonasm;  i.  e.,  by  placing  it  before  a  sentence  in 
which  an  aflEirmation  is  made  concerning  it;  as,  "Your  fathers, 
where  are  they?" 

4.  With  a  participle;  as,  "The  sun  being  risen". 

7.  A  noun  limiting  the  meaning  of  another  noun 
denoting  the  same  person  or  thing,  is,  by  apposition, 
in  the  same  case;  as,  Washington  the  general  became 
Washington  the  statesman. 

39.  Declension. 

The  I>ecleiision  of  a  noun  is  its  variation  to  de- 
note number  and  case. 

The  absolute  case  always  has  the  same  form  as  the  nom- 
inative. 

EXAMPLE. 

Singular.         Plural. 
Norn.,  Fly,  Flies, 


Poss.,      ■      Fly's,  Flies', 

06;.,  Fly,  Flies. 


Singular.  Plural. 

Nom.,      Ooodness,  

Poss.,       Goodness',  

Obj.,        Goodness,  , 


Questions. — What  is  case?  How  many  cases  are  there? 
What  is  the  nominative  case?  The  possessive  case?  The  object- 
ive case?  The  absolute  case  ?  How  is  the  possessive  case  singular 
formed  ?  The  possessive  case  plural  ?  In  how  many  ways  may  a 
noun  be  in  the  absolute  case?    Give  examples. 

What  is  declension  ?    Decline  "boy",  "girl",  "farmer". 


PARSING.  75 

40.  Parsing. 

Parsing  consists  (1)  In  naming  the  part  of  speech  ; 
(2)  In  telling  its  properties;  (3)  In  pointing  out  its 
relations  to  other  words ;  (4)  In  giving  the  rule  for 
its  construction. 


41.  Order  of  Parsing. 

1.  A  noun,  and  why? 

2.  Common  or  proper,  and  why? 

3.  Gender,  and  why? 

4.  Person,  and  why? 

5.  Number,  and  why? 

6.  Case,  and  why? 

7.  Rule  for  construction. 


42.  Models  for  Parsing. 

I.  "Wheat  is  a  vegetable." 

Wbeat ...  is  a  noun;  it  is  a  name:  common;  it  can  be  applied  to 
any  one  of  a  kind  or  class:  neuter  gender;  it  denotes 
neither  males  nor  females:  third  person;  it  is  spoken 
of:  singular  number;  it  denotes  but  one:  nominative 
case;  it  is  used  as  the  subject  of  the  proposition. 
Rule  I.  "The  subject  of  a  proposition  is  in  the  nom- 
inative case." 

Vegetable  is  a  noun;  (why?):  common;  (why?):  neuier  gender; 
(why?):  third  person;  (why?):  singular  number; 
(why?):  nominative  case;  it  is  used  as  the  predicate 
of  the  proposition.  Rule  II.  "  A  noun  or  pronoun 
used  as  the  predicate  of  a  proposition  is  in  the  nom- 
inative case." 


76 


ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 


II.  "Henry's  uncle,  the  sheriff,  was  wounded." 

Henry's  .  is  a  noun;  (why?):  proper;  it  is  the  name  of  a  par- 
ticular person:  masculine  gender;  it  denotes  a  male: 
third  person;  (why?):  singular  number;  (why?):  pos- 
sessive case;  it  denotes  possession,  and  modifies  "uncle". 
Rule  III.  "A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  limit  the  mean- 
ing of  a  noun  denoting  a  different  person  or  thing,  is 
in  the  possessive  case." 

Sheriff.  .  ig  a  noun;  (why?):  common;  (why?):  masculine  gen- 
der; (why?):  third  person;  (why?):  singular  number; 
(why?):  nominative  case,  in  apposition  with  "uncle", 
which  it  modifies.  Rule  IV.  "A  noun  or  pronoun 
used  to  limit  the  meaning  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  by 
denoting  the  same  person,  place,  or  thing,  is  in  the 
same  case." 


III.  "Samuel,  study  your  lesson  with  care." 

Samuel  .  .  is  a  noun;  (why?):  proper;  (why?):  masculine  gen- 
der; (why?):  second  person;  it  denotes  the  person, 
addressed :  singular  number;  it  denotes  but  one  :  ab- 
solute caBe;  it  is  used  independently.  Rule  V.  "A 
noun  or  pronoun  used  independently  is  in  the  abso- 
lute case." 

I^esson  .  .  is  a  noun;   (why?):    common;   (why?):    neuter  gender; 
( w^hy  ? ) :  third  person ;  (why?):  s^ingular  number;  ( why  ? ) : 
objective  case;   it    is   the   object   of  the  verb    "study". 
Rule  VI.    "The    object    of   a    transitive   verb   in   the 
'"rt^.    .  active   voice,   or  of  its  participles,   is   in   the   object- 

ive case." 

Care  .  .  .  is  a  noun;  (why?):  common;  (why?):  neuter  gender; 
(why?) :  third  person;  (why?) .  singular  number;  (why?) : 
objective  case ;  it  is  used  as  the  object  of  the  preposition 
"with".  Rule  VTI.  "The  object  of  a  preposition  is  in 
the  objective  case." 


SYNTAX.  77 

EXERCISES. 

Analyze  the  JoUowing  sentences,  and  parse  the  nouns: 

1.  Borneo  is  a  large  island.  2.  Our  father  lives  in  Wash- 
ington. 3.  John's  dog  bit  Clarence.  4.  Johnson's  farm  is 
mortgaged.  5.  Mr.  Trowel  the  mason  is  unwell.  6.  Oh,  Helen, 
father  is  coming.  7.  The  statue  fell  from  its  pedestal.  8. 
Gad,  a  troop  shall  overcome  him.  9.  Jocko  has  stolen  my 
^^,^^^/^^pectacles.  10.  Susan's  mother  is  my  aunt.  11.  Is  the  doc- 
tor's office  open? 

12.  Next  to  sincerity,  remember  still 
Thou  must  resolve  upon  integHty. 
God  will  have  all  thou  hast ;   thy  mind,  thy  will, 
Thy  thoughts,  thy  words,  thy  works. — Herbert. 

Write   the    first    two    sentences    of  a    composition    on    "Winter 
Sports",  and  parse  the  nouns. 

Correct  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Jane  has  two  brother-in-laws.  2.  Storms  are  interesting 
phenomenons.  3.  Three  chimnies  were  on  fire.  4.  The  Sha- 
ker's are  industrious.  5.  Did  you  attend  Mr.  Chance'  lecture. 
6.  I  called  at  Coleman's  the  jeweler's.  7.  She  is  reading  in  her 
sister's  Mary's  book. 

Questions. — What  is  a  noun?  A  common  noun?  A  proper 
noun?     What  belong  to  nouns? 

What  is  gender?  How  many  genders  are  there?  What  is  the 
masculine  gender?  The  feminine  gender?  The  common  gender? 
The  neuter  gender? 

What  is  person  ?  The  first  person  ?  The  second  person  ?  The 
third  person? 

What  is  number?  The  singular  number?  The  plural  number? 
Repeat  the  rules  for  the  formation  of  the  plural. 

What  is  case  ?  How  many  eases  are  there  ?  W^hat  is  the  nom- 
inative case?  The  possessive  case?  How  is  the  possessive  case 
singular  formed?  The  possessive  case  plural?  What  is  the  ob- 
jective case?  Tlie  absolute  case?  In  how  many  ways  may  a 
noim  or  pronoun  be  in  the  absolute  case  ?     Give  examples. 

What  is  declension?     Parsing?     Order  of  parsing  a  noun? 


78  ELEMENTARY   GRAMMAR. 


THE   PRONOUN. 

To  pronouns  belong  Gender,  Person,  Number,  and 
Case. 

43.  Personal  Pronouns. 

1.  The  ISimple  Personal  Pronouns  are  7,  thou, 
lie,  she,  and  it,  with  their  declined  forms  ^ve,  our,  us, 
my,  mine,  ye,  you,  your,  thy,  thine,  thee,  his,  him,  her, 
its,  they,  their,  them.  ' 

2.  The  Componnd  Personal  Pronouns  are  formed 
by  adding  self  or  selves  to  some  form  of  the  simple  per- 
sonals ;   as,  myself,  yourselves,  himself,  themselves. 

Rem. —  You  is  used  to  represent  both  singular  and  plural 
nouns. 

We  is  used  in  place  of  I,  in  editorials,  royal  proclamations, 
&c. ;  as,  *^We,  Geo.  IV,  King  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland"; 
^^We  were  mistaken". 

It  is  sometimes  used  in  the  nominative,  without  reference 
to  any  particular  antecedent,  and  in  the  objective  for  euphony 
alone;  as,  "//!  thunders";  "Come  and  trip  it  on  the  green". 

When  pronouns  of  different  persons  are  used,  the  second 
should  precede  the  third,  and  the  third  the  first. 

44.  Declension  of  Personjil  Pronouns. 


Singular.  Plural. 

Myself,        Ourselves, 

Myself,        Ourselves. 


FIRST   PERSON. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Nom.j 

I, 

We, 

Nom. 

Poss., 

My,  mine, 

Our, 

Poss., 

Obj., 

Me, 

Us. 

Obj., 

PRONOUNS. 


79 


SECOND  PERSON^. 


Singultir.  Plural. 

Thou,  Ye, 

Thy,  thine,  Your, 

06/.,  Thee,  You. 


Norn.  &  Obj.. 


Singular. 

(       Thyself, 


Yourself. 


Singular.  Flural. 

■Nom.,          You,  You, 

Your,  Your, 

Olyj.,            You,  You. 


fNom 
Jposs 


Flural. 
Nom.  &  Obj.,  Yourselves. 


THIRD  PERSON. 


Singular. 

Mas.         Fern.  Neut. 

Nam.,      He,         She,  It, 

Poss.,      His,        Her,  "  Its, 

Obj.,        Him,      Her,  It. 


Singular. 

Mas. 
Himself, 

Fern. 
Herself, 


Nom.  &  Obj., 


Neut. 
Itself. 


Nom. 
Poss., 
Obj., 


Plural. 

Com.  or  Neut. 
They, 
Their, 
Them. 


Plural. 


(     Com,  or  Neut. 
'    (    Themselves. 


45.  Order  of  Pai^sing. 

1.  A  pronoun,  and  why? 

2.  Personal,  and  why  ? 

^.  What  is  its  antecedent  ? 

4.  Gender,  person,  and  number?     Bule. 

5.  Decline  it. 

6.  Case,  and  why?     Rule. 


80  ELEMENTARY   GRAMMAR. 

46.  Models  for  Pai*sing. 

T.  "I  see  them  on  their  winding  way." 
is  a  pronoun;  (why?):  personal;  it  shows  by  its  form  that 


it  is  of  the  first  person  :  its  antecedent  is  the  name,  un- 
derstood, of  the  speaker  :   gender,  first  person,  singular 

number,  to  agree  with  its  antecedent.  Rule  IX.  "Pro- 
nouns must  agree  with  their  antecedents  in  gender,  person, 
and  number."     Decline  it:   nominative  case:  Rule  I. 

Ttaem  .  is  a  pronoun;  (why?):   personal;   (why?):   its  antecedent 

is  the  name,  understood,  of  the  person  spoken  of:    

gender,  third  person,  plural  number:  Rule  IX.  Decline  it: 
objective  case;  it  is  the  object  of  the  transitive  verb  "see": 
Rule  VI. 

II.  "  I,  myself,  told  you  so." 

Myself  is  a  pronoun;  (why?):   personal;  (why?):   compound:  its 

antecedent  is  the  name,  understood,  of  the  speaker:   

gender,  first  person,  singular  number:  Rule  IX.  Decline  it: 
nominative  case,  in  apposition  with  "I":   Rule  IV. 

EXERCISES. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  parse  the  iioiins  and  per- 
sonal  pronouns : 

1.  You  and  he  are  my  friends.  2.  I  saw  them  in  their  car- 
riage. 3.  The  soldiers  helped  themselves.  4.  Thou  art  the 
man.  5.  He  saved  thy  money  for  thee.  6.  Your  father  knows 
us.     7.  He  himself  hid  youi  slate. 

8.  Where  shall  I  see  him  ?  angels  tell  me  where. 
You  know  him  ;  he  is  near  you ;   point  him  out. 
Shall  I  see  glories  beaming  from  his  brow, 
Or  trace  his  footsteps  by  the  rising  flowers?^ — Young. 

Write  the  first  two  sentences  of  a  composition  on  "Our  Garden", 
and  parse  the  perMonal  pronouns. 


PRONOUNS.  81 


^nestion^. — What  is  a  pronoun  ?  A  personal  pronoun  ?  What 
are  tke  simple  personal  pronouns?  The  compound  personal  pro- 
nouns? What  does  "you"  represent?  How  is  "we"  used?  How 
is  "it"  sometimes  used?  Give  examples  of  the  use  of  these  pro- 
nouns. When  pronouns  of  different  persons  are  used,  how  should 
they  be  arranged  ? 

Decline  the  personal  pronouns. 

Repeat  the  order  of  parsing  personal  pronouns. 


47.  Possessive  Pronouns. 

1.  The  Possessive  Pronouns  are  mine^  thine,  hisj 
Tiers,  ours,  yours,  theirs, 

2.  To  denote  emphatic  distinction,  my  own  is  used 
for  mine,  his  own  for  his,  thy  own  for  thine,  our  own 
for  ours,  your  own  for  yours,  their  own  for  theirs. 

48.  Order  of  Parsing. 

1.  A  Pronoun,  and  why? 

2.  Possessive,  and  why? 

3.  What  is  its  antecedent? 

4.  Gender,  person,  and  number?     Rule. 

5.  Case,  and  why?     Rule. 

49.  Models  for  Parsing. 

I.  "That  house  is  mine,  not  yours." 

FIRST   METHOD. 

Sline  is  a  pronoun;  (why?):  possessive;  it  represents  both  the  pos- 
sessor and  the  thing  possessed :  its  antecedent  is  "  house " : 
neuter  gender,  third  person,  singular  number,  to  agree  with 
its  antecedent:  Rule  IX:  nominative  ca^e;  it  is  used  as  the 
predicate  of  the  proposition:  Rule  II.  Parse  "yours"  in  a 
similar  manner. 
E.  G.— 6. 


82  ELEMENTARY   GRAMMAR. 


SECOND  METHOD. 

t 

Mine  is  a  pronoun;  (why?):  possessive;  (why?):  it  is  equivalent 
to  "my  house".  Parse  "my"  as  a  personal  pronoun  in  the 
possessive  case,  according  to  Rule  III,  and  "house"  as  a 
predicate  nominative,  according  to  Rule  II. 

EXERCISES. 
Analyze  the  foUovdng  sentences j  and  parse  the  possessive  pro- 


1.  That  horse  of  yours  is  lame.  2.  This  sled  is  not  yours : 
it  must  be  hers.  3.  The  money  is  your  own.  4.  Friend  of 
mine,  you  are  welcome.  5.  That  garden  of  theirs  is  a  very 
fine  one.  6.  This  book  is  not  mine;  it  must  be  his  or  hers. 
7.  She  is  an  old  friend  of  ours.  8.  These  books  are  yours, 
not  theirs. 


Q,nestions. — What  is  a  pronoun  ?  A  possessive  pronoun  ? 
Name  the  possessive  pronouns.  How  is  emphatic  distinction  de- 
noted?   Repeat  the  order  of  parsing  possessive  pronouns. 


50.  Relative  Pronouns. 

1.  The  Simple  Relative  Pronouns  are  who,  which, 
what,  and  that. 

WLem.—That  is  a  relative  when  who,  which,  or  whom  can  be 
used  in  its  place. 

2.  The  Componnd  Relative  Pronouns  are  who- 
ever, whoso,  whosoever,  whichever,  whichsoever,  what- 
ever, and  whatsoever. 

3.  Some  relative  pronouns  not  only  connect  clauses, 
but  also  comprise  in  themselves  both  antecedent  and 
relative. 


PRONOUNS.  83 

In  the  sentence,  "I  got  what  I  desired",  what  \9,  used  in- 
stead of  the  thing  which  —  "I  got  the  thing  which  I  desired", 
"Thing",  the  object  of  "got",  is  the  antecedent,  and  is 
modified  by  "the"  and  "which  I  desired",  both  adjective 
elements. 

In  the  sentence,  "Tell  what  you  know",  what  is  equivalent 
to  that  which— ''Tell  that  which  you  know".  "That",  the 
object  of  "tell",  is  the  antecedent,  and  is  modified  by  "which 
you  know",  an  adjective  element. 

In  the  sentence,  "Whatever  is,  is  right",  whatever  is  equiv- 
alent to  that  which — "That  which  is,  is  right"  "That",  the 
subject  of  the  proposition,  "That  is  right",  is  the  antecedent, 
and  "that",  the  subject,  is  modified  by  "which  is",  an  adjec- 
tive element. 

In  the  sentence,  "Whoever  runs  may  read",  whoever  is 
equivalent  to  he  who,  or  any  person  who — "He  who  runs  may 
read".  "He",  the  subject  of  the  sentence,  "He  may  read", 
is  the  antecedent  of  "who",  and  is  modified  by  "who  runs", 
an  adjective  element. 

In  the  sentence,  "Whichever  road  you  may  take  will  lead 
to  the  city",  whichever  is  equivalent  to  any  which — "Any  road 
which  yx)u  may  take",  &c.  "Any"  and  "which  you  may  take" 
are  adjective  elements,  modifying  "road",  the  antecedent  of 
"which". 

That  part  of  a  sentence  which  is  introduced  by  a  relative 
pronoun  is  called  a  Relative  Clause. 


\ 

I 


51.  Declension. 


Singular  and  Plural. 
Norn.,  Who, 

Pos8.,  Whose, 

Obj.,  Whom. 


Singular  and  Plural. 
Nam.,  Which, 

Pass.,  Whos\, 

Obj.,  Which. 


Si  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 


52.  Order  of  Parsing. 

1.  A  Pronoun,  and  why? 

2.  Relative,  and  why? 

3.  Name  its  antecedent. 

4.  Gender,  person,  and  number  ?     Rule. 

5.  Decline  it. 

6.  Case,  and  Rule. 


53.  Models  for  Parsing. 

I.  "Happy  is  the  man  that  findeth  wisdom." 

That  ...  is  a  pronoun ;  ( why  ?) :  relcUive ;  it  represents  a  pre- 
ceding word  or  phrase,  to  which  it  joins  a  limiting 
clause:  its  antecedent  is  "man":  maculine  gender,  third 
person,  singular  number :  Rule  IX  :  nominative  case ;  it 
is  the  subject  of  the  relative  clause,  "  That  findeth  wis- 
dom " :    Rule  I. 

II.  "Whoever  perseveres  will  succeed." 

Whoever  is  a  pronoun;  (why?):  relalive ;  (why?):  it  is  equiva- 
lent to  he  who,  or  any  one  who  — "  he "  being  the  ante- 
cedent, and  "who",  the  relative.  Parse  "he"  as  a  per- 
sonal pronoun,  subject  of  "will  succeed",  or  "one"  as 
an  adjective  used  as  a  noun,  subject  of  "will  succeed", 
and  "who"  as  a  relative,  subject  of  "perseveres",  ac- 
cording to  Rule  I. 

III.  "  I  remember  what  you  said." 

What ...  is  a  pronoun;  (why?) :  relative;  (why?)  :  it  is  equiva- 
lent to  that  which — "that"  being  the  antecedent  part, 
and  "which",  the  relative.  Parse  "that"  as  an  adjec- 
tive used  as  a  noun,  in  the  objective  case  after 
"remember".     . 


PRONOUNS.  85 

Wbicli  .  ,  is  a  pronoun;  (why?) :  relative;  (why?) :  its  antecedent 
is  "that":  neuter  gender,  third  person,  singular  number: 
Rule  IX:  objective  case;  object  of  the  transitive  verb 
"said":    Rule  VI. 

EXERCISES. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  parse  the  pronouns: 

1.  He  that  hateth,  dissembleth  with  his  lips.  2.  This  is  tlie 
child  that  was  lost.  3.  The  dog  which  you  bought  was  stolen. 
4.  He  will  do  what  is  right.  5r^-Ask  for  what  you  want.  6. 
That  is  the  man  whose  house  was  burned.  7.  This  is  the  dog 
that  worried  the  cat  that  killed  the  rat  that  ate  the  malt  that 
lay  in  the  house  that  Jack  built.  8.  My  sister,  whom  I  loved, 
is  dead.  • 

Write  the  first  two  sentences  of  a  compositio7i  on  "  Velocii»edes", 
and  parse  the  nouns  and  pronouns. 


Questions.— What  is  a  pronoun?  A  relative  pronoun?  What 
are  the  simple  relatives?  The  compound  relatives?  What  do 
some  relatives  comprise  in  themselves?  To  what  is  "what"  equiv- 
alent? "Whatever"?  "Whoever"?  "Whichever"?  "Whoso"? 
and  "Whosoever"?  Ana. — He  who.  Decline  "who"  and  "which". 
What  is  a  relative  clause? 

Repeat  the  order  of  parsing  a  relative  pronoun. 


54.  Interrogative  Pronouns, 

1.  The   Interrogative   Pronouns  are  who,  which, 
and  what,  when  used  in  asking  questions. 

2.  The  Subsequent  of  an  interrogative  pronoun  id 
that  part  of  the  answer  which  it  represents. 

Rem. — An  interrogative  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  sub- 
sequent in  gender,  person,  and  number.     Hence,  when  the 


86  ELExMENTARY   GRAMMAR. 

answer  is  not  given,  or  clearly  implied,  its  gender,  person,  and 
number  are  indeterminate. 

Ex. — "Who  is  hurt?"  The  answer  to  this  question  not  being 
given,  it  is  evident  that  the  gender,  person,  and  number  of  "who" 
are  indeterminate. 

"Who  is  hurt ?  — Silas."  The  answer  to  this  question  is  given. 
"Who"  is  masculine  gender,  third  person,  singular  number,  agree- 
ing with  "Silas",  its  subsequent. 

Apply  Rule  IX  in  parsing  interrogatives,  changing  "ante- 
cedent" to  "subsequent". 


55.  Order  of  Parsing. 

1.  A  Pronoun,  and  why? 

2.  Interrogative,  and  why? 

3.  Name  its  subsequent,  if  expressed. 

4.  Gender,  person,  and  number?     Rule. 

5.  Decline  it. 

6.  Case,  and  Rule. 


56.  Models  for  Parsing. 

I.  "Who  invented  gunpowder?" 

Who  .  is  a  pronoun;  (why?):  interrogative;  it  is  used  in  asking  a 
question :  its  subsequent  is  not  expressed :  gender,  person, 
and  number  indeterminate:  nominative  case;  it  is  used  an 
the  subject  of  the  proposition:  Rule  I. 

II.  "What  is  that  man? — A  lawyer." 

Wliat  is  a  pronoun;  (why?):  interrogative;  (why?):  its  subse- 
quent is  "lawyer":  masculine  gender,  third  person,  singular 
number:  Rule  IX:  nominative  case;  it  is  used  as  the  pred- 
icate of  the  proposition :   Rule  II. 


FALSE   SYNTAX.  ^TT'O  T  V  ^- 

EXERCISES.  ^S.-ijFO'E'^ 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  parse  the  prenonnsT 

1.  Who  came  with  you?  2.  Whoge  horse  ran  away?  3. 
Whom  did  you  call? — Mary.  4.  What  did  you  say?  5.  WLat 
IS  UtAt?  —  It  is  a  velocipede.  6.  VVhich  will  ysu  have?—  The 
laigC'  one.  7.  Whom  did  you  take  me  to  be-?  ^  8.  Who 
told  yovi  how  to  parse  "wh:|^"?  9.  I  do  not  know  who  — -/^^  1^ 
you  are. 

10.  "Alas  for  thooc  who  never  sing, 

But  die  with  all  t^ejr  music  in  them." — Holmeg. 


^nestions. — What  are  the  interrogative  pronouns?  What  ia 
the  subsequent  of  an  interrogative  ?  With  what  must  an  interrog- 
ative agree  in  gender,  person,  and  number?  Repeat  the  order  of 
parsing  ai)  interrogative. 


57.  False  Syntax. 

1.  False  Syntax  is  any  violation  of  the  laws  of 
good  usage,  in  the  application  of  words  or  the  con- 
struction of  sentences. 

2.  Most  of  the  common  errors  in  the  use  of  language  may 
be  avoided  by  observing  the  "Cautions"  in  this  and  subse- 
quent sections. 

See  Part  I,  Lesson  IX,  for  model  for  correction. 

Caution  I. — Do  not  omit  the  subjects  of  declarative  sentences. 

Ex. — 1.  Glad  you  have  come.  2  Hope  you  will  remain  long 
with  us.  3.  What  say?  4.  'Tis  a  poor  school  can't  keep  itself 
half  an  hour,  5.  It  was  Johnson  saved  the  drowning  man,  6 
After  a  long  tramp,  felt  very  much  fatigued.  7.  Read  his  poems: 
like  them  very  much.    Think  them  sublime. 


88  ELExMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

Caution  II. — Do  not  omit  the  sign  of  possession  in  formirig 
the  possessive  case  of  nouns,  nor  use  it  in  forming  the  possessive 
case  of  pronouns. 

Ex. — 1.  Mr.  Moody  sells  mens  hats.  2.  That  boys  father  is  ray 
uncles  landlord.  3.  The  horse  threw  it's  rider.  4.  That  book  is 
her's.  5.  Frances  mother  is  an  actress.  6.  Where  was  Mr.  Pierce' 
arm  broken?     7.  Who's  house  is  thatN 

Caution  III. — Do  not  use  the  objective-case  forms  of  pronouns 
as  subjects  or  predicates  of  sentences. 

Ex. — 1.  Her  and  me  study  algebra.  2.  It  is  me.  3.  It  is  her 
who  you  wish  to  see.  4.  Him  and  you  ought  to  go  to  school.  5. 
You  and  him  and  me  were  boys  together. 

Caution  IV. — Do  not  use  "who"  as  the  object  of  a  transitive 
verb  or  preposition. 

Ex. — 1.  Do  you  know  who  you  are  talking  to?  2.  H^  is  a  fel- 
low wlio  I  do  not  like.     3.  Tell  me  who  you  work  for. 

Caution  V. —  The  second  persoji  should  precede  the  third,  and 
the  third  the  first. 

Ex. — 1.  He  and  you  are  in  the  same  class.  2.  I  and  you  will 
not  whisper.     3.  I  and  he  went  skating. 

Caution  VI. — Do  not  use  a  pronoun  and  its  antecedent  as 
subjects  of  the  same  proposition. 

Ex. — 1.  Mr.  Kellogg  he  has  bought  our  farm.  2.  Many  words 
they  darken  speech.  3.  The  boys  they  all  staid  in  at  recess.  4. 
The  horse  he  run,  and  the  man  he  hollered  "whoa". 

Caution  VII. — Avoid  the  use  of  different  Umbus^ffmioimf  in 
MgLsa»ie  construction. 

Ex. — 1.  If  you  will  go,  I  will  take  care  of  thy  farm.  2.  I 
hope  you  will  put  money  into  thy  purse.  3.  I  will  tell  thee 
what   we  have,   and  which  will  suit  you.     4.  Le3.rn  thy   lesson. 


FALSE    SYNTAX.  89 

then    amuse   yourself.     5.  You   may  have   my  sled,   if  you  will 
lend  me  thy  skates. 

Cantion  VIII. — Do  not  use  improper  forms  of  possessive  pro- 
nouns. 

Ex. — 1.  That  house  is  his'n.  2.  Is  that  book  your'n?  3.  No, 
it  is  her'n.  4.  He  had  no  gun ;  so  he  borrowed  our'n.  5.  You'una 
should  study  harder.     6.  We'uns  are  learning  fast. 

Caution  IX. — Do  not  use  "which"  to  represent  persons,  or 
"who"  to  represent  animals,  ^hildmn,  or  objects  without  life.  ^ 

Ex. — 1.  She  is  a  friend  which  I  have  long  proved.  2.  They 
which  honor  me,  I  will  honor.  3.  This  is  the  child  who  was  lost. 
4.  That  is  the  man  which  sells  pictures.  5.  It  was  our  old  dog 
Hero,  who  was  killed.  6.  I  assisted  the  poor  old  woman  which 
was  hurt. 

Correct  the  following  sentences  by  reference  to  Rule  IX: 

1.  Every  person  should  mind  their  own  business.  2.  Each  day 
has  their  own  anxieties.  3.  If  any  one  hasn't  voted,  they  will  rise 
in  their  places.  4.  Many  a  youth  have  injured  their  health  by 
keeping  late  hours. 

Questions. — What  is  a  pronoun  ?  A  personal  pronoun  ?  What 
are  the  simple  personal  pronouns?  The  compound  personal  pro- 
nouns? What  does  "you"  represent?  How  is  "we"  used? 
"It"?  Decline  the  personal  pronouns.  Repeat  the  order-of 
parsing  personal  pronouns. 

Wharare  the  possessive  pronouns  ?  How  is  emphatic  distinction « 
denoted  ?     Repeat-  the  order  of  parsing  possessive  pronouns. 

What  is  a  relative  pronoun  ?  What  are  the  simpl^  relatives  ? 
The  compound  relatives?  What  do  «orae  relatives -con^prise  in 
themselves?  To  what  is  "what"  equivalent?  "Whatever"? 
"  Whoever  "  ?  "  Whoso  "  and  "  Whosoever  "  ?  Decline  "  who  "  and 
' '  which  ".  What  is  a  relative  clause  ?  Repeat  the  order,  of  parsing 
a  relativje  pronoun. 

What  are  the  interrogative  pronouns?  What  is- the  subsequent 
of  an  interrogative?  With  what  must  an  interrogative  agree  in 
gender,  person,  and  number?  Repeat  the  order  of  parsing  an  in- 
lerrosrative. 

What  is  false  syntax  ?    Repeat  the  cautions. 


90  ELEMENTARY   GRAMMAR. 

THE   ADJECTIVE. 
68.  Descriptive  Adjectives. 

Most  descriptive  adjectives,  by  cliange  of  form  or  the  addi- 
tion of  modifying  words,  express  quality  in  different  degrees. 
This  is  called  Comparison. 

1.  Comparison  is  a  variation  of  the  adjective  to 
express  different  degrees  of  quality ;  as,  rich^  richer,, 
richest. 

2.  There  are  three  I>^rees  of  Comparison  :  Pos- 
itive, Comparative,  and  Superlative. 

3.  The  Positive  I>^;ree  expresses  the  simple  qual- 
ity, or  an  equal  degree  of  the  quality;  as,  "An  old 
man";   "She  is  as  good  as  she  is  beautifuV\ 

Rem. — Tlie  suffix  ish,  and  the  words  rather,  somewhat,  &c., 
expresses  a  small  amount  of  the  quality;  as,  saltish,  having  a 
little  taste  of  salt;  rather  warm,  som^ewhat  awkward. 

4.  The  Comparative  D^ree  ascribes  to  one  of  two 
objects  a  higher  or  lower  degree  of  the  quality  than 
that  expressed  by  the  positive ;  as,  "An  older  man " ; 
"Charles  is  more  studious  than  Mary". 

The  comparative  of  monosyllables  is  regularly  formed  by 
adding  r  or  er  to  the  positive :  the  comparative  of  adjectives 
of  more  than  one  syllable  ia  formed  by  prefixing  more  or  less 
to  the  positive;  as,  rough,  rougher;  more  honorable,  less  Hon- 
orahle. 

5.  The  Superlative  Degree  ascribes  the  highest 
or  lowest  degree  of  the  quality  to  one  of  more  than  two 


ADJECTIVES.  91 

objects;   as,  "The  oldest  man";  *'The  lea^  fertile  farm 
in  the  township". 

The  superlative  of  monosyllables  is  regularly  formed  by 
adding  st  or  est  to  the  positive:  of  adjectives  of  more  than  one 
syllable,  by  prefixing  most  or  least  to  the  positive;  as,  roughest, 
most  honorable,  least  honorable. 

Some  adjectives  are  compared  irregularly;  as,  good,  better, 
belt;  bad,  worse,  worst. 

Some  adjectives  can  not  be  compared ;  as,  square,  infinite, 
mpreme. 

Adjectives  should  not  be  doubly  compared. 

EXERCISES. 
Compare  the  following  adjectives  : 

Proud,  angry,  laughable,  cheerful,  holy,  wise,  agreeable, 
honest,  sensible,  near,  far,  little,  skillful. 

Tell  the  degrree  of  comparison  of  the  following  adjectives: 

Taller,  most  useful,  more  hopeful,  least  sensible,  greenish, 
less  confident,  rather  nice,  farthest,  eldest,  later,  stormy,  very 
frightful. 

59.  Definitive  Adjectives. 

1.  Pronominal  Adjectives  are  those  definitives, 
most  of  which  may,  without  the  article  prefixed,  rep- 
resent a  noun  understood. 

The  principal  pronominals  are, 

1.  The  JDemonstratives,  this,  that,  these,  those,  former, 
latter,  both,  same,  yon,  yonder. 

2.  The  DistributiTes,  each,  every,  either,  neither. 

3.  The  Indefinites,  all,  any,  another,  certain,  divers,  enough, 


92  ELEMENTARY   GRAMMAR. 

few,  little,  many,  much,  no,  none,  one,  own,  other,  several, 
some,  sundry,  which,  whichever,  whichsoever,  what,  whatever, 
whatsoever. 

Rem.  1. — The  phrases  such  a,  many  a,  what  a,  but  a,  only  a, 
&c.,  are  pronominals,  and  should  be  parsed  as  single  words. 

Rem.  2. — Some  pronominals  can  be  compared  like  descrip- 
tive adjectives;  as,  few,  fewer,  fewest;  much,  more,  most. 

2.  IVumeral  Adjectives  are  those  definitives  which 
denote  number  and  order  definitely ;  as,  two,  fourth, 
fourfold. 

There  are  three  classes  of  numeral  adjectives:  Cardinal,  Or- 
dinal, and  Multiplicative. 

1.  Cardinals  denote  the  number  of  objects;  as,  two,  four,  a 
thousand. 

2.  Ordinals  mark  the  position  of  an  object  in  a  series;  as, 
second,  fourth,  thousandth. 

3.  Mnltlplicatives  denote  how  many  fold;  as,  twofold, 
fourfold. 

60.  Order  of  Pai'sing. 

1.  An  Adjective,  and  why? 

2.  Descriptive  or  definitive,  and  why? 

3.  Compare  it,  if  it  admits  of  comparison. 

4.  Degree  of  comparison? 

6.    What  does  it  modify?     Rule. 


61.  Models  for  Parsing. 

I.  "Fearful  storms  sweep  over  these  islands." 

Fearftal  is  an  aidjective;    (why?):    descriptive;  it  modifies  a  noun 
by  denoting  some  quality:   compared,  pos.  fearful,  com. 


ADJECTIVES.  93 

more  fearful,  mp.  most  fearful:  positive  degree^  and  be- 
longs to  "storms".  Rule  XII.  "An  adjective  or  par- 
ticiple belongs  to  some  noun  or  pronoun." 

These.  .  is  an  adjective;  (why?):  definitive;  it  defines  without  de- 
noting any  quality :  it  can  not  be  compared,  and  belongs 
to  "islands":    Rule  XII. 

II.  "I  have  been  there  many  a  time." 
Many  a  is  an  adjective;  (why?):  definitive;  (why?):  it  can  not  be 
compared,  and  belongs  to  "time":   Rule  XII. 

EXERCISES. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  parse  the  nouns,  pronouns, 
and  adjectives : 

1.  I  saw  a  large  drove  of  cattle.  2.  Jane  is  studying  modem 
history.  3.  Fido  is  a  Newfoundland  dog.  4.  You  may  have 
the  smallest  melon.  5.  Every  man  received  a  penny.  6.  Either 
road  leads  to  town.  7.  That  course  was  most  honorable.  8. 
He  took  a  twofold  view  of  the  subject.  9.  What  noise  is  that? 
10.  Two  men  wanted  the  fourth  horse. 

11.  With  many  a  curve  my  banks  I  fret, 
By  many  a  field  and  fallow, 
And  many  a  fairy  foreland,  set 

With  willow,  weed,  and  mallow. —  Tennyson. 

Write  the  first  sentence  of  a  composition  on  "Wbat  I  did  last 
Saturday",  and  parse  the  adjectives. 

62.  False  Syntax. 

Caution  I. — Do  not  me  a  be/ore  vowel  sounds,  nor  an  be/ore 
consonant  sounds. 

Ex.  — 1.  Ah  hundred  cents  make  one  dollar.  2.  There  should 
be  aii  imiversal  rejoicing.  3.  This  is  a  open  country.  4.  He  is 
a  honest  man. 


94  ELEMENTARY   GRAMMAR. 

Caution  II. — Do  not  iise  them  for  those,  this  here  for  this, 
or  that  'ere  for  that. 

Ex. — 1.  Look  at  them  beggars.  2.  That  'ere  girl  is  not  very 
handsome.  3.  What  is  the  name  of  tliis  here  town  ?  4.  Put  them 
peaches  ii>  the  pantry. 

Caation  III. — Do  not  use  adverbs  as  adjectives. 

Ex. — 1.  Did  you  arrive  safe!^?  2.  The  country  looks  beauti- 
fully. 3.  The  eggs  boiled  hardfy.  4.  I  feel  poetically.  5.  Mat- 
ters look  more  favorably  just  now.     6.  I  like  our  now  minister. 

Caution  IV. — Avoid  double  comparatives  and  superlatives. 

Ex. — 1.  He  is  the  most  miserably  man  in  town.  2.  No  man 
cantt  be  more  neutral^  than  I  on  the  temperance  question.  3.  He 
seems  more  cheerfull&r  to-day.  4.  Always  choose  the  lesssf  of  two 
evils.     5.  That  is  moce  preferable  tbaA  to  b^  imprisoned. 

Caution  V.—  07nit  the  article  before  a  word  used  as  a  titles  or 
as  a  inere  name. 

Ex.— 1.  They  gave  him  the  title  of -a«  emperor.  2.  A^  rascal 
formerly  meant  ^  servant.  3.  Riches  and  honor  are  the  gifts  of 
fortune.  4.  He  is  a  better  sailor  than  a^  soldier.  5.  They  elected 
him  as  a  chairman. 

Caution  VI. — Plaxie  ordinal  adjectives  before  cardinals  in  most 
constructions. 

Ex. — 1.  The  four  first  houses  on  the  right  hand  belong  to 
me.  2.  Sing  the  two  first  and  two  last  verses.  3.  Read  the  three, 
first  chapters. 

Caution  Vll* — Plural  adjectives  should  modify  plural  nouns: 
singular  adjectives,  singular  nouns. 

Ex. — 1.  I  do  not  like  these  kind  of  apples.  2.  These  sort  of 
people  don't  amount  to  much.  3.  Those  yoke  of  oxen  cost 
seventy-five  dollars. 


VERBS.  95 


Questions. — What  is  an  adjective?  A  descriptive  adjective? 
What  is  comparison  ?  How  many  degrees  of  comparison  are  there? 
What  is  the  positive  degree?  What  does  the  suffix  ish  denote? 
"Rather"?  "Somewhat"?  What  is  the  comparative  degree?  How 
is  it  regularly  formed?  What  is  the  superlative  degree?  How  is 
it  regularly  formed?  How  are  some  adjectives  compared?  Can 
all  adjectives  be  compared? 

What  is  a  definitive  adjective?  What  are  pronominal  adjec- 
tives? Name  some  of  the  principal  demonstratives :  distributives: 
indefinites.  What  is  said  of  the  phrases  sttcA  a,  <&c.?  What  are 
numeral  adjectives?     Cardinals?    Ordinals?     Multiplicatives ? 

Repeat  the  order  of  parsing  an  adjective. 

Repeat  the  cautions  in  false  syntax. 


THE  VERB. 

To  verbs  belong  Voice,  Mode,  Tense,  dumber,  and 
Person. 

Let  the  pUpil  now  review  section  19,  Part  II. 


63.  Voice. 

A  verb  may  represent  its  subject  as  acting  or  as  being  acted 
upon.  In  the  sentence,  "John  struck  James",  "John"  the 
subject,  is  represented  as  acting:  in  the  sentence,  "James  was 
struck  by  John",  "James",  the  subject,  is  represented  as  be- 
ing acted  upon.  This  property  is  called  voice,  and  is  peculiar 
to  transitive  verbs. 

1.  Voice  is  that  form  of  the  transitive  verb  which 
shows  whether  the  subject  acts  or  is  acted  upon. 

2.  Transitive  verbs  have  two  voices :  an  Active  and 
a  Passive  Voice. 

3.  The  AdiTe  Voice  represents  the  subject  as  act- 
ing upon  an  object;  as,  "The  boy  wrote  a  letter"; 
"Eli  is  studying  his  lesson". 


»b  ELEMENTARY   GRAMMAR. 

4.  The  Passive  Voice  represents  the  subject  as 
being  acted  upon;  as,  "The  letter  was  written^' ;  "The 
lesson  ivas  studied''. 

5.  The  Passive  Voice  is  formed  by  prefixing  some 
form"  of  the  verb  to  be  to  the  perfect  participle  of  a 
transitive  verb. 

Rem.— A  verb  in  the  active  voice  is  changed  into  the  pas- 
sive by  making  the  direct  object  in  the  active  the  subject  in 
the  passive;  as,  "The  cat  caught  the  mouse"  {active);  "The 
mouse  was  caught  by  the  cat"  {passive). 

Tell  which  verbs  are  active  and  which  passive  in  the  following 

exercises  : 

1.  The  girl  sings.  2.  Fire  burns.  3.  The  mail  was  robbed. 
4.  Truants  will  be  punished.  5.  A  meteor  was  seen.  fJ.  He 
should  have  told  the  truth.  7.  Children  love  play.  8.  He  has 
found  his  knife.  9.  A  watch  was  found  in  the  street.  10.  The 
burglar  might  have  been  arrested.  11.  The  bad  boy  was 
whipped  for  stealing  apples. 


Ctnestions. — What  is  a  verb?  A  transitive  verb?  An  intran- 
Ritive  verb?     A  copulative  verb? 

What  is  a  participle?  The  present  participle?  How  does  the 
present  participle  always  end?  What  is  the  perfect  participle? 
How  does  it  usually  end?  What  is  the  compound  participle? 
How  is  it  formed? 

What  belong  to  verbs?  What  is  voice?  How  many  voices 
have  transitive  verbs?  What  is  the  active  voice?  The  passive 
voice?  How  is  the  passive  voice  formed?  How  is  a  verb  in  the 
active  voice  changed  into  the  passive?    Give  examples. 


64.  Mode. 

1.    IM:ode  is  the  manner  in  which  the  action,  being, 
or  state  is  expressed. 


VERBS.  97 

2.  There  are  five  modes :  Indicative^  Subjunctive, 
Potential,  Imperative,  and  Infinitive, 

3.  The  Indicative  Mode  asserts  a  thing  as  a  fact, 
or  as  actually  existing;  as,  "Fire  burns^^;  "A  battle 
was  fought^'. 

4.  The  Subjiiiietive  Hode  asserts  a  thing  as  doubt- 
ful, as  a  supposition,  or  as  a  future  contingency;  as, 
"If  this  be  true,  all  will  end  well";  "I  shall  go,  if 
you  remai7i^\ 

5.  The  Potential  Mode  asserts  the  potver,  neces- 
sity, liberty,  duty,  or  liability  of  acting,  or  of  being  in 
a  certain  state;  as,  "He  can  taW;  "You  niust  go''; 
"They  should  be  more  careful". 

Rem. — May,  can,  must,  might,  could,  would,  and  should  are 
the  signs  of  the  potential  mode. 

6.  The  Imperative  Mode  expresses  a  command, 
an  exhortation,  an  entreaty,  or  a  permissioyi;  as,  ''Go''; 
"i>o  not  hurt  me". 

7.  The  Infinitive  Mode  expresses  the  action,  be- 
ing, or  state,  without  affirming  it;  as,  "To  go";  "He 
wants  to  speak". 

Rem.  1. — The  infinitive  may  usually  be  known  by  the  sign 
to  placed  before  it.  This  sign  is  omitted  after  the  words  bid, 
dare,  feel,  help,  let,  make,  need,  see,  and  a  few  others;  as,  "Let 
them  [to]  come  on";  "See  him  [to]  run";  "Bid  them  [to] 
come". 

Rem.  8. — The  indicative  and  potential  modes  may  be  used 
in  asking  questions;  as,  "Is  he  honest?"  "Has  she  arrived  f" 
"May  I  go  home?" 


98  ELEMENTARY   GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 
Tell  the  mode  of  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  The  army  encamped  by  the  river.  2.  Run  for  some  water. 
3.  You  must  recite  your  lesson.  4.  I  will  recite  my  lesson,  if 
I  can.  5.  I  like  to  play.  6.  Hope  thou  in  God.  7.  Do  let 
me  go  to  the  picnic.  8.  He  should  have  come  home.  9.  Lif^ 
up  your  heads,  O  ye  gates  !  10.  Were  I  rich,  I  would  purchase 
that  property. 

11.  Hope  not  the  cure  of  sin  till  Self  is  dead; 
Forget  it  in  love's  service,  and  the  debt 
Thou  canst  not  pay  the  angels  will  forget. —  Whittier. 


Q,aestions. — What  is  mode?  How  many  modes  are  there? 
Name  them.  What  is  the  indicative  mode?  W^liat  is  the  sub- 
junctive mode?  What  is  the  potential  mode?  What  are  the 
signs  of  the  potential  mode?  What  is  the  imperative  mode? 
What  is  the  infinitive  mode?  What  is  the  sign  of  the  infinitive 
mode?     What  modes  are  used  in  asking  questions? 


65.  Tense. 

1.  Tense  denotes  the  time  of  an  action  or  event. 

2.  There  are  six  tenses  :  the  Present^  the  Preseyit 
Perfect^  the  Past^  the  Past  Perfect,  the  Future,  and 
the  Future  Perfect, 

3.  The  Present  Tense  denotes  present  time;  as, 
"I  write''^;  "The  wind  is  hlowing^\ 

4.  The  Present  Perfect  Tense  represents  an  ac- 
tion or  event  as  past,  but  connected  with  present  time; 
as,  "  I  have  written  ";   "  The  wind  has  been  blowing ''. 

5.  The  Past  Tense  denotes  past  time;  as,  "I 
wrote'';   "The  wind  blew'\ 


VERBS.  99 

6.  The  Past  Perfect  Tense  represents  an  act  as 
ended  or  completed  in  time  fully  past ;  as,  "  I  had 
written  ";  "  The  bridge  had  fallen  before  we  reached  it ". 

7.  The  Future  Tense  denotes  future  time ;  as,  "  I 
shall  write'';  ''The  lion  shall  eat  straw  like  the  ox". 

8.  The  Future  Perfect  Tense  represents  an  act  as 
finished  or  ended  at  or  before  a  certain  future  time ; 
as,  "I  shall  have  written  the  letter  before  the  mail 
closes". 

66.  Signs  of  the  Tenses. 

ACTIVE    VOICE. 

Indicative  Mode. 

Present,  .     .        Simple  form  of  the  verb. 
Past,       .     .     .   When  regular,  add  ed  to  the  simple  form. 
Future,   .         .   Prefix  shaU  or  tvill  to  the  simple  form. 
Pesent  Perfect,       "       have,  hast,  or  has  to  the  perfect  participle. 
Past  Perfect,     .       "       had  or  hadst  to  the  perfect  participle. 
Future  Perfect,        "       shall  have  or  will  have  to  the  perfect  par- 
ticiple. 

Snbjnnctive  Mode. 

^^mt,^ -^ssept,  unless,  &c.,  placed  before  tense  "forms  given  in 
the  conjugation. 

Potential  Mode. 

Present,  .     .     .   Prefix  may,  can,  or  must  to  the  simple  form. 

Past,  ...  "  might,  could,  would,  or  should  to  the  simple 
form. 

Present  Perfect,  "  tnay,  can,  or  mv^t  have  to  the  perfect  par- 
ticiple. 

Past  Perfect,  .  "  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  to  the 
perfect  participle. 


100  ELEMENTARY   GRAMMAR. 

Imperative  Mod^. 

Present,  .     .     .    Let,  or  a  command. 

Infinitive  Mode. 

Present,  .     .     .   Prefix  to  to  the  simple  form. 

Present  Perfect,       "       to  have  to  the  perfect  participle. 

Participles. 

Present,  .     .     .   Add  ing  to  the  simple  form. 
Perfect,   .     .     .   When  regular,  add  ed  or  d  to  the  simple  form. 
Compound,  .     .   Prefix  having  to  the  perfect  participle,  or  having 
been  to  the  present  or  perfect  participle. 

EXERCISES. 
Teil  the  tense  of  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Emma  sings.  2.  I  went  home.  3.  John  ran.  4.  Write. 
5.  Let  him  go.  6.  The  man  shouted.  7.  I  had  been  taught. 
8.  They  will  succeed.  9.  We  shall  be  glad.  10.  The  letter  will 
have  been  written.  11.  If  you  go,  I  shall  stay.  12.  You  might 
study.  13.  He  may  have  written.  14.  Know  most  of  the 
rooms  of  thy  native  country,  before  thou  goest  over  the  thresh- 
old thereof — Fuller. 


<tuestions. — What  i&  tense  ?  How  many  tenses  are  there  ? 
What  is  the  present  tense?  The  present  perfect?  The  past?  The 
past  }»erfect?  The  future?  The  future  perfect?  Give  the  signs  of 
the  tenses. 

What  is  mod'3?  How  many  modes  are  there?  What  is  the 
indicative  mode?  The  subjunctive  mode?  The  potential  mode? 
The  imperative  mode?    The  infinitive  mode? 


67.  Person  and  Number. 

1.  The  Person  and  Bi^umber  of  verbs  are  the 
changes  which  they  undergo  to  mark  their  agreement 
with  their  subjects. 


VERBS.  101 

2.  A  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in  person 
and  number. 

Rem. — The  infinitive,  having  no  subject,  has  neither  person 
nor  number. 

08.  Auxiliaries. 

Auxiliary  Verbs  are  those  which  are  used  in  the 
conjugation  of  other  verbs.  They  are  do,  be,  have, 
shall,  may,  can,  must. 

Rem. — Do,  be,  have,  and  will  are  often  used  as  principal 
verbs;  as,  " He  rfoes  well" ;  "lam";  "He  Aow  money";  "He 
wills  it". 

69.  Unipersonal  Yerbs. 

A  Unipersonal  Terb  is  one  by  which  an  act  or 
state  is  asserted  independently  of  any  particular  sub- 
ject;  as,  "It  snows'';  "It  behooves  us  to  be  watchful". 


Questions. — What  is  meant  by  the  person  and  number  of  a 
verb?  With  what  must  a  verb  agree  in  person  and  number? 
What  are  auxiliary  verbs?  Name  them.  Which  of  these  are 
sometimes  used  as  principal  verbs?     What  is  a  unipersonal  verb? 


70.  Conjugation. 

1.  The  Conjugation  of  a  verb  is  the  correct  ex- 
pression, in  regular  order,  of  its  modes,  tenses,  voices, 
'persons,  and  numbers. 

2.  The  Piineipal  Parts  of  a  verb  are  the 
indicative^  the  past   indicative,  and   the  P£^^^^^^' 
ficiple. 


£4LTv^r('i\^. 


102  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

3.  The  Synopsis  of  a  verb  is  its  variation  in  form, 
through  the  different  modes  and  tenses,  in  a  single 
person  and  number. 

71.  Synopsis  of  the  Verb  "To  Be". 

Principal  Parts. 

Present  Tense.  Past  Tense.  Perfect  Participle. 

Be,  or  am.  Was.  Been. 

Indicative  Mode. 

Present,  ...   I  am.  Past  Perfect,    .  I  had  been. 

Present  Perfect,    I  have  been.         Future,  ...  I  shall  be. 

Past,       ...     I  was.  Future  Perfect,  I  shall  have  been. 

Subjunctive  Mode. 

Present,     .     .     .     If  I  be.  Past, If  I  were. 

Past  Perfect,     .     .     .    If  I  had  been. 

Potential  Mode. 

Present,  ...    I  may,  can,  or  must  be. 

Present  Perfect,   I  may,  can,  or  must  have  been. 

Past,        ...   I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  be.  ^ 

Past  Perfect,     .   I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  been. 

Conjugation  of  the  Yerb  "To  Be". 

Note. — Shall,  in  the  finst  person,  and  will,  in  the  second  and 
third,  denote  futurity.  Will,  in  the  first  person,  and  shall  iu 
the  second  and  third,  denote  determination  or  necessity. 

INDICATIVE   MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  am,  1.  We  are, 

2.  Thou  art,  2.  You  are, 

3.  He  is ;  3.  They  are. 


VERBS.  103 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  have  been,  1.   We  have  been, 

2.  Thou  hast  been,  2.   You  have  been, 

3.  He  has  been ;  3.   They  have  been. 

PAST  TEIWE. 

1.  I  was,  1.    We  were, 

2.  Thou  wast,  2.   You  were, 

3.  He  was;  3.   They  were. 

PAST   PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  I  had  been,  1.    We  had  been, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been,  2.    You  had  been, 

3.  He  had  been ;  3.   They  had  been. 

FUTURE  TENSE. 

1.  I  shall  be,  1.  We  shall  be, 

2.  Thou  wilt  be,  2.  You  will  be, 

3.  He  will  be  ;  3.  They  will  be. 

FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  I  shall  have  been,  1.   We  shall  have  been, 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  been,  2.    You  will  have  been, 

3.  He  will  have  been ;  3.   They  will  have  been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  be,  1.   If  we  be, 

2.  If  thou  be,  2.   If  you  be, 

3.  If  he  be ;  3.    If  they  be. 

PAST  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  were,  1.  If  we  were, 

2.  If  thou  wert,  2.  If  you  were, 

3.  If  he  were ;  3.  If  they  were. 


104  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 


PAST   PERFECT   TENSE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  had  been,  1.    If  we  had  been, 

2.  If  thou  hadst  been,  2.   If  you  had  been, 

3.  If  he  had  been;  3.   If  they  had  been. 

POTE^IAL   MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

1.  I  may  be,  1-    We  may  be, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be,  2.    You  may  be, 

3.  He  may  be;  3.   They  may  be. 

PRESENT  PERFECT   TENSE. 

1.  I  may  have  been,  1.    We  may  have  been, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been,  2.    You  may  have  been, 

3.  He  may  have  been;  3.   They  may  have  been. 

PAST  TENSE. 

1.  I  miglit  be,  1.    We  might  be, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be,  2.    You  might  be, 

3.  He  might  be;  3.    They  might -Jje. 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 
3.   I  might  have  been,  1.   We  might  have  been, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been,  2.    You  might  have  been, 

3.  He  might  have  been ;  3.   They  might  have  been. 

Note. — In  reviews,  use  the  auxiliary  can  or  must. 


IMPERATIVE   MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 
2.  Be,  or  do  thou  be;  2.   Be,  or  do  ye  or  you  be. 

INFINITIVE   MODE. 
Present^     To  be;  Present  Perfect,     To  have  been. 


VERBS.  105 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present,   Being ;  Perfect,   Been  ;  Compound,   Having  been. 

72.  Synopsis  of  the  Terb  "To  Love". 

ACTIVE    VOICE. 

Principal   Parts. 

Present  Tense.  Past  Tense.  Perfect  Participle. 

Love.  Loved.  Loved. 

IndicatiTe  Mode. 

Present,  ...   I  love.  Past  Perfect,    .  I  had  loved. 

Present  Perfect,    I  have  loved.        Future,  ...  I  shall  love. 
Past,       ...    I  loved.  Future  Perfect,  I  shall  have  loved. 

SubjnnctiTe  Mode. 

Present,     .     .     .     If  I  love.  Pas/,     ...     If  I  loved. 

Past  Perfect,     ...     If  I  had  loved. 

Potential  Mode 

Present,  ...  I  may,  can,  or  must  love. 

Present  Perfect,  I  may,  can,  or  must  have  loved. 

Past,   ....  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  love. 

Past  Perfect,     .  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  loved. 

Conjugation  of  the  Terb  "To  Love". 

INDICATIVE   MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  love,  1.   We  lov^, 

2.  Thou  lovest,  2.    You  love, 

3.  He  loves;  3.   They  love. 


106  ELEMENTARY   GRAMMAR. 

PRESENT  PERFECT   TENSE. 
Singular.  "  Plural. 

1.  I  have  loved,  1.    We  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  hast  loved,  2.    You  have  loved, 

3.  He  has  loved;  3.   They  have  loved. 

PAST  TENSE. 

1.  I  loved,  1.   We  loved, 

2.  Thou  lovedst,  2.   You  loved, 

3.  He  loved;  3.   They  loved. 

PAST    PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  I  had  loved,  1.   We  had  loved, 

2.  Thou  hadst  loved,  2.    You  had  loved, 

3.  He  had  loved;  3.   They  had  loved. 

FUTURE  TENSE. 

1.  I  shall  love,  1.   We  shall  love, 

2.  Thou  wilt  love,"**  2.   You  will  love, 

3.  He  will  love;  3.   They  will  love. 

FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  I  shall  have  loved,  1.   We  shall  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  loved,  2.   You  will  have  loved, 

3.  He  will  have  loved;  3.   They  will  have  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  love,  1.  If  we  love, 

2.  If  thou  love,  2.  If  you  love, 

3.  If  he  love ;  3.  If  they  love. 

PAST  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  loved,  1.  If  we  loved, 

2.  If  thou  loved,  2.  If  you  loved, 

3.  If  he  loved ;  3.  If  they  loved. 


VERBS.  107 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  had  loved,  •         1,   If  we  had  loved, 

2.  If  thou  hadst  loved,  2.   If  you  had  loved, 

3.  If  he  had  loved ;  3.   If  they  had  loved. 

POTENTIAL   MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

1.  I  may  love,  1.   We  may  love, 

2.  Thou  mayst  love,  2.   You  may  love, 

3.  He  may  love;  3.   They  may  love. 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  I  may  have  loved,  1.    We  may  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  raayst  have  loved,  2,   You  may  have  loved, 

3.  He  may  have  loved ;  3.   They  may  have  loved. 

PAST  TENSE. 

1.  I  might  love,  1.   We  might  love, 

2.  Thou  mightst  love,  2.   You  might  love, 

3.  He  might  love;  3.   They  might  love. 

PAST   PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  I  might  have  loved,  1.   We  might  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  loved,  2.   You  might  have  loved, 

3.  He  might  have  loved  ;  3.   They  might  have  loved. 

IMPEKATIVE   MODE. 
2.   Love,  or  do  thou  love ;  2.  Love,  oc-de  yg  or  yoa  -lave. 


INFINITIVE   MODE. 
Present,    To  love;  Present  Perfect,    To  have  loved. 


lOS  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present,   Loving ;      Perfect,  Loved  ;      Compound,   Having  loved. 

73.  Synopsis  of  the  Verb  "To  Love". 

PASSIVE    VOICE. 

The  Passive  Voice  is  formed  by  prefixing  the  various  forms 
of  the  verb  to  be  to  the  perfect  participle.  The  tense  of  the 
verb  to  be  determines  the  tense  in  the  Passive  Voice. 

Indicative  Mode. 

Present, I  am  loved. 

P-esent  Perfect,  ....  I  have  been  loved. 

Past, I  was  loved. 

Past  Perfect, I  had  been  Joved. 

Future,      .  "T    .     .     .     .  I  shall  be  loved. 

Future  Perfect,  ....  I  shall  have  been  loved. 

Subjunctive  Mode. 

P-esent,     .     .     If  I  be  loved.         Past,    .     .     If  I  were  loved. 
Past  Perfect,     .     .     If  I  had  been  loved. 

Potential  Mode. 

Present, I  may  be  loved. 

Present  Perfect,  ....  I  may  have  been  loved. 

Past, I  might  be  loved. 

Past  Perfect, I  might  have  been  loved. 

iTote. — The  pupil  should  be  required  to  commit  to  memory 
the  Synopsis,  then  to  write  the  full  conjugation  of  to  love,  or 
some  other  transitive  verb,  in  both  voices,  correcting  or  veri- 
fying his  work  by  comparing  it  with  the  paradigms  already 
given. 


VERBS.  109 


74.  Coordinate  Forms  of  Conjugation. 

1.  The  Progressive,  the  Emphatic,  and  the  Interrog- 
ative are  called  the  Coordinate  Forms  of  Conjugation. 

2.  The  Progressive  Form  is  used  to  denote  action, 
being,  or  state  in  progress;   as,  "He  was  ivriting'\ 

In  the  Progressive  Form,  the  various  forms  of  the  verb  to  be 
are  prefixed  to  the  present  participle. 

3.  The   Emphatic   Form   represents   an  act  with 
emphasis;   as,  "I  do  write^^;  "He  did  write'\ 

4.  The    Interrogative    Form    is    used    in    askinrj 
questions  ;   as,  "  Love  I  ? "   "  Bid  he  ivrite  ?  " 


o 


SYNOPSIS. 

PROGRESSIVE   FORM. 

IiKlicative  Mode. 

Present, I  am  living. 

Present  Perfecty  ....     I  have  been  Ifving. 

Past, I  was  l(>ving. 

Past  Perfect, I  had  been  living. 

Future, I  shall  be  l4)ving. 

Future  Perfect,  ....     I  shall  have  been  leaving. 

Snbjnnctivc  Mode. 

Present,    .    .    If  I  be  loving.        Past,    .    .    If  I  were  lovin< 
Past  Perfect,    .    .    If  I  had  been  loving. 

Potential  Mode. 

Present, I  may  be  loving. 

Present  Perfect, ....     I  may  have  been  loving. 

Past, I  might  be  loving. 

Past  Perfect, I  might  have  been  loving. 


110  ELEMENTARY   GRAMMAR. 

Infinitive  Mode. 

Present,  To  be  loving.      Present  Perfect,  To  have  been  loving. 

Imperative  Mode. 

Present, Be  thou  loving. 

Participles. 

Present,    .    Loving.  Compound,    .    Having  been  loving. 

THE   EMPHATIC   FORM. 

Indicative  Mode. 

Pr^ent,     .     .     I  do  love.  Past,     .     .     I  did  love. 

Subjunctive  Mode. 

Present,     .     .     If  I  do  love.  Past,     .     .     If  I  did  love. 

Imperative  Mode. 

Present, Do  thou  love. 

INTERROGATIVE   FORM. 

Present,  .     •     .  Love  I  ?     Do  I  love  ?     Am  I  loving  ? 

Present  Perfect,  Have  I  loved  ?     Have  I  been  loving  ? 

Past,       .     .     .  Loved  I?     Did  I  love?     Was  I  loving? 

Past  Perfect,     .  Had  I  loved  ?     Had  I  been  loving  ? 

FtUure,    .     •     .  Shall  I  love?     Shall  I  be  loving? 

Future  Perfect,  Shall  I  have  loved?     Shall  I  have  been  loving? 

Potential  Mode. 

Present,     .     .     .     .    .     .     .  Must  I  love? 

Present  Perfect,      .     .     .     .  Must  I  have  loved  ? 

Past, Might  I  love  ? 

Past  Perfect, Might  I  have  loved? 


VERBS.  ^Uir^S-^ 

oar 

EXERCISES. 

Write  a  synopsis  of  the  transitive  verbs  think,  insti 
mand,  punish,  teach,  and  see,  in  the  Indicative,  Subjunctive,  and 
Potential  Modes,  Active  and  Passive  Voices. 

Tell  the  mode,  tense,  person,  and  number  of  each  verb  in  the 

following  sentences . 

1.  He  ran.  2.  You  teach.  3.  They  have  seen.  4.  If  he  go. 
5.  They  may  have  written.  6.  Has  he  departed?  7.  They 
will  command.  8.  Emma  will  have  recited.  9.  The  army 
will  be  disbanded. 

10.  America  was  discovered.  11.  The  people  should  be  con- 
tented. 12.  He  has  invented  a  velocipede.  13.  Attend  to  your 
lesson.  14.  He  can  go,  if  the  carriage  is  not  too  full.  15.  The 
man  loves  to  see  it  rain. 


Q,nestions. — What  is  conjugation  ?  Wliat  are  the  principal 
parts  of  a  verb?  What  is  the  synopsis  of  a  verb?  Give  the 
synopsis  of  "to  be".  Of  "to  love",  in  both  tlie  active  and  the 
passive  voice. 

What  are  the  coordinate  forms  of  conjugation?  What  is  the 
progressive  form  ?  The  emphatic  form  ?  The  interrogative  form  ? 
Give  the  synopsis  of  each  form. 


75.  Regular  and  Irregular  Verbs. 

1.  A  R^iilar  Verb  forms  its  past  indicative  and 
perfect  participle  by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the  present 
indicative ;  as,  love,  love-d,  love-d ;  count,  count-edy 
count-ed, 

2.  An  Irregular  Verb  is  one  which  does  not  form 
its  past  tense  and  perfect  participle  by  adding  d  or  ed 
to  the  present  indicative;  as,  go,  went,  gone;  see,  saw, 
seen;  do,  did,  done. 


112 


ELEMENTARY   GRAMMAR, 


76.  Irregular  Verbs. 


The  following  list  contains 
of  the  irregular  verbs.  Those 
ular  fprms. 


the   Principal   Parts  of  most 
marked  R  have  also  the  rea:- 


Pi-eserU. 

Past. 

Perfect 
Participle. 

Premif. 

Past. 

Perfect 
Participle. 

Abide, 

abode. 

abode. 

Breed, 

bred. 

bred. 

Am, 

was. 

been. 

Bring, 

brought. 

brought. 

Arise, 

arose. 

arisen. 

Build, 

built,  R. 

built,  R. 

f  awaked, 
1  awoke. 

Burn, 

burnt,  R 

burnt,  R. 

Awake, 

awoke,  r 

Burst, 

burst, 

burst. 

Bear, 

1  bore, 
)  ( bare, 

born. 

Buy, 

bought. 

bought. 

(bring  forth 

Cast, 

east. 

cast. 

Bear,  (ca»Ti/),  bore. 

borne. 

Catch, 

caught,  R.   caught,  R 

Beat, 

beat. 

1  beaten, 
(  beat. 

Chide, 

chid. 

j  chidden, 
1  chid. 

Become, 

became. 

become. 

Choose, 

chose. 

chosen. 

Befall, 

befell. 

befallen. 

~  Cleave, 

cleaved, 
1  clave. 

cleaved. 

Beget, 

begat, 
1  begot. 

begotten. 

(adhei-c) 

begot. 

(  cleft. 

cleft, 

Begin, 

began, 

begun. 

Cleave, 

\  clove. 

cloven, 

Behold, 

beheld. 

beheld. 

{split) 

i  clave. 

cleaved. 

Belay, 

belaid,  r 

.    belaid,  r. 

Cling, 

clung, 

clung. 

Bend, 

bent,  R. 

bent,  R. 

Clothe, 

f  clothed, 
1  clad, 

clothed, 

Bereave, 

bereft,  r. 

bereft,  r. 

clad. 

Beseech, 

besought 

besought. 

Come, 

came. 

come. 

Bet, 

bet,  R. 

bet,  R. 

Cost, 

cost. 

cost. 

Betide 

(  betided, 
(  betid, 

betided. 

Creep, 

crept. 

crept. 

betid. 

Crow, 

crew,  R. 

crowed. 

Bid, 

bid, 
bade, 

bid. 

Cut, 

cut. 

cut. 

bidden. 

Dare, 

durst,  R. 

dared. 

Bind, 

bound, 

bound. 

Deal, 

dealt, 

deah. 

Bite, 

bit 

f  bitten, 
(bit. 

Dig, 

dug,  R. 

dug,  R. 

Mil, 

Do, 

did. 

done. 

Bleed, 

bled. 

bled. 

Draw, 

drew. 

drawn. 

Bless, 

f  blessed, 
1  blest, 

blessed. 

Dream, 

dreamt,  R.  dreamt,  r 

blest. 

Dress, 

drest,  R. 

drest,  R. 

Break, 

broke, 
.  brake. 

broken, 
broke. 

Drink, 

drank, 

drunk, 

IRREGULAR    VERBS. 


113 


Prenent. 

Pai>t. 

Perfect 
Participle. 

Prenent. 

Past. 

Perfect 

Participle. 

Drive, 

drove. 

driven. 

Knit, 

knit,  R. 

knit,  R. 

Eat, 

ate. 

eaten. 

Know, 

knew, 

known.         .           -^ 
laid.  ocny^<^^ 

Fall, 
Feed, 

fell, 
fed, 

fallen. 
fed. 

Lay, 
Lead, 

laid, 
led. 

Fee!, 

felt, 

felt. 

Lean, 

leant,  b. 

leant,  k. 

Fight,  ~ 

"TbuiTTtr 

fought. 

Leap, 

leapt^R. 

'  leapt,  R. 

Find, 

found, 

found. 

Learn, 

learnt,  r 

.     learnt,  r. 

Flee, 

fled, 

fled. 

Leave, 

left, 

left. 

Fling, 

flung. 

flung. 

Lend, 

lent, 

lent. 

3% 
Forbear, 

Forget, 

flew. 

flown. 

Let, 

let, 

let. 

forbore, 
forgot, 

forbore, 
forgotten, 
.  forgot. 

Lie, 

{recline) 

Light, 

lit,  R. 

lain.^^^n^^^'^ 
lit,  R. 

Forsake, 

forsook. 

forsaken. 

Loadj 

loaded, 

laden,  r. 

Freeze, 

froze, 

frozen. 

Lose, 

lost, 

lost. 

Freight, 

freiglitet 

1,    fraught,  R. 

Make, 

made. 

made. 

Get, 

got, 

gotten. 

Mean, 
Meet, 

meant, 
met. 

meant, 
met. 

Gild, 

gilt,  R. 

gilt,  R. 

Mow, 

mowed, 

mown,  B, 

Gird, 

girt,  R. 

girt,  K. 

Pass, 

past,  R. 

past 

Give, 

gave, 

given, 
gone. 
— gi-aven,  r. 

Pay, 

paid, 

paid. 

Go, 

OfttVC 

went, 
-  gra*e4^- 

Pen, 

(iiido«e) 

J  pent,  R, 

pent,  R. 

Grind, 

ground, 

ground. 

Plead, 

Grow, 

grew. 

grown. 

(  pled, 

pled. 

Hang, 

hung,  R. 

hung,  R. 

Put, 

put, 

put. 

Have, 

had, 

had. 

Quit, 

quit,  R. 

quit,  R. 

Hear, 

heard. 

heard. 

Rap, 

rapt,  R. 

rapt,  R. 

Heave, 

hove,  R. 

hoven,  r. 

Read, 

read. 

read. 

Hew, 

hewed, 

hewn,  R. 

Reave, 

reft, 

reft. 

Hide, 

hid, 

f  hidden, 

Rend, 

rent. 

rent. 

Rid, 

rid. 

rid. 

Hit, 

Hold, 

hit, 
held. 

hit. 
1  held, 

1    tif'kl/ipiyi 

hurt. 

Ride, 

rode. 

f  ridden, 
(Fede: 

Hurt, 

hurt, 

Ring, 

1  rang, 

rung. 

Keep, 

kept, 

kept. 

Rise, 

rose. 

risen. 

Kneel, 

knelt,  R. 

knelt. 

Rive, 

rived. 

riven,  b. 

E.  G — 8. 

^ifUct 

114 


ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 


A 


^ 


Present. 

Past. 

Perfect 
Participle. 

Kun, 

ran, 

run. 

baw, 

sawed, 

sawn,  R. 

Say, 

said, 

said. 

^See, 

saw. 

seen. 

Seek, 

sought, 

sought. 

Set, 

set, 

set. 

Seethe, 

sod,  R. 

sodden,  r. 

Shake, 

shook, 

shaken. 

Shape, 

shaped, 

shapen,  r. 

Shave, 

sjiaved, 

^shaven,  r. 

Shear, 

^0*ejR. 

shorn,  R. 

Shed, 

shed. 

shed. 

Shine, 

shone,  E. 

shone,  R. 

Shoe, 

shod- 

shod. 

Shoot, 

shot, 

shot. 

Show, 

showed. 

shown. 

Shred, 

shred. 

shred. 

Shut, 

shut. 

shut. 

Sing, 

I  sang. 

sung. 

Sink, 

sank, 
sunk, 

sunk. 

Sit, 

sat. 

sat. 

Slay, 

slew, 

slain. 

Sleep, 

slept. 

slept. 

Sling, 

slung, 

slung. 

Slink, 

slunk. 

slunk. 

Slit, 

slit,  R. 

slit,  R. 

Smell, 

smelt,  R. 

smelt,  R. 

Smite, 

smote, 

f  smitten, 
t  smit. 

Sow, 

>  sowed, 

sown,  R. 

{scatter) 

Speak, 

spoke. 

spoken. 

Speed, 

sped,  R. 

sped,  R. 

^Spell, 

spelt,  R. 

spelt,  R. 

Spend, 

spent, 

spent. 

Spill, 

spilt,  R. 

spilt,  B. 

Present. 

Pa^t. 

Perfect 
Participle. 

Spin, 

1  spun, 

spun. 

Spit, 

1  spit, 

spit, 
spitten. 

Split, 

split,  R. 

split,  R. 

Spoil, 

spoilt,  R. 

spoilt,  R. 

Spread, 

spread. 

spread. 

Spring, 

1  sprang, 
1  sprang. 

sprung. 

Stand, 

stood, 

stood. 

Stave, 

stove,  R. 

stove,  R. 

Stay, 

staid,  R. 

staid,  B. 

Steal, 

stole. 

stolen. 

Stick, 

stuck. 

stuck. 

Sting, 

stung. 

stung. 

Stride, 

J  »t«tr, 
1  strode, 

—  strid, 
stridden. 

Strike, 

struck, 

struck, 
.  stricken. 

String, 

strung. 

strung. 

Strive, 

strove, 

striven. 

Strow, 

strowed. 

strown. 

Swear, 

f  swore, 

t«Mfa*e, 

sworn. 

Sweat, 

sweat,  R. 

sweat,  R. 

Sweep, 

swept. 

swept. 

Swell, 

swelled. 

swollen,  R 

Swim, 

f  swam. 

swum. 

Swing, 

swung. 

swung. 

Take, 

took. 

taken. 

Teach, 

taught. 

taught. 

Tear, 

tore. 

torn. 

Tell, 

told. 

told. 

Think, 

thought, 

thought. 

Thrive, 

throve,  b 

.   thriven,  R. 

DEFECTIVE    AND    REDUNDANT    VERBS. 


115 


Present. 

Past. 

Perfect 
Participle. 

Present. 

Past. 

Perfect 
Participle. 

Throw, 

threw. 

thrown. 

Weep, 

wept, 

wept. 

Thrust, 

thrust, 

thrust. 

Wet, 

wet,  R. 

wet,  B. 

Tread, 

trod. 

( trodden, 
Iteod. 

Whet, 
Win, 

whet,  R. 
won. 

whet,  R. 
won. 

Wake, 

woke,  R. 

woke,  R. 

Wind, 

wound, 

wound. 

Wax, 

waxed, 

waxen,  r. 

W^ork, 

wrought, 

R.  wrought,  R 

Wear, 

wore, 

worn. 

Wring, 

wrung, 

wrung. 

Weave, 

wove,  R. 

woven,  R. 

Write, 

wrote, 

written. 

Wed, 

wed,  R. 

wed,  R. 

77.  Defective  and  Redundant  Terbs. 

1.  Defective  Verbs  are  those  which  want  some  of 
the  principal  parts. 

They  are  beware,  from  be  and  aware,  ought,  quoth, 
quod,  wit,  and  its  derivatives,  tvot,  wis,  wert,  wist,  wote. 

2.  Redundant  Verbs  are  those  which  have  more 
than  one  form  for  their  past  tense  and  perfect  participle ; 
as,  cleave,  clove,  or  clave;  cleft,  cloven,  or  cleaved. 


Qnestions.— What  is  a  regular  verb?  An  irregular  verb?  A 
defective  verb?  Which  are  the  defective  verbs?  What  are  re- 
dundant verbs?    Give  examples. 

EXERCISES. 
Correct  the  following  sentences,  using  this 

MODEL. 
"  The  man  throwed  a  stone." 
This  sentence  is  incorrect.     The  word   "throwed"  should  be 
"threw",  the  past  indicative  of  the  verb  "throw".     The  sentence 
should  read,  "The  man  threw  a  stone". 

1.  I  have  saw  some  fine  cattle  to-day.  2.  He  ought  to  have 
wtint  home.     3.  The  beads  were  stringed  on  a  silk  thread. 


116  ELEMENTARY   GRAMMAR. 

4.  He  has  brung  some  snow  into  the  school-house.  5.  The 
cloth  was  weaved  by  hand.  6.  The  horse  come  cantering 
along.     7.  This  coat  has  wore  well. 

8.  The  cars  have  ran  off  the  track.  9.  The  bells  ringed 
when  the  news  was  got.  10.  I  dumb  the  tree  and  shaked  the 
apples  off.  11.  That  candle  should  be  blowed  out.  12.  I  laid 
down,  and  ris  much  refreshed.  13.  Was  the  cow  drove  to  pas- 
ture? 14.  The  plastering  has  fell  from  the  ceiling.  15.  I  seen 
him  git  it. 

Correct  all  errors  in  the  use  of  irregular  verbs  you  may  notice 
in  your  conversation  with  your  school-mates. 

78.  Order  of  Parsing. 

1.  A  Verb,  and  why? 

2.  Regular  cfr  irregular,  and  why? 

3.  Give  its  principal  parts. 

4.  Copulative,  Transitive,  or  Intransitive,  and  why? 

5.  Voice,  and  why? 

6.  Mode,  and  why  ? 

7.  Tense,  and  why? 

8.  Person  and  number,  and  why?     Rule. 

79.  Models  for  Parsing. 

I.  "Liberty  is  sweet." 

Im is  a  verb;  it  is  a  word  which  denotes  being :  irregular; 

it  does  not  form  its  past  tense  and  perfect  participle 
by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the  present  indicative :  principal 
parts  are  pres.  am,  past  ind.  was,  perf.  part,  been: 
copulative;  it  asserts  the  predicate  of  the  subject:  in- 
dicative mode;  it  asserts  a  fact :  present  tense;  it  denotes 
present  time :  third  person,  singular  number,  to  agree 
with  its  subject  "liberty".  Rule  XIII.  "A  verb 
must  agree  with  its  subject  in  person  and  number." 


MODELS    FOR   PARSING. 


117 


II.  "I  shall  go,  if  you  remain." 
Sball  go  ...  is  a  verb;  (why?):  irregular;  (why?):  give  its  prin- 
cipal parts :  intransitive ;  it  does  not  require  an  ob- 
ject to  complete  its  meaning:  indicative  mode ;  (why?): 
future  tense;  it  denotes  future  time:  first  person,  sin- 
gular number;  (why?).  Rule  XIII.  *'A  verb  must 
agree  with  its  subject  in  person  and  number." 

Remain  ...  is  a  verb;  (why?),  regular;  it  forms  its  past  indica- 
tive and  perfect  participle  by  adding  ed  to  the  pres- 
ent indicative :  give  the  principal  parts :  intransi- 
tive; (why?):  svhjuictive  mode;  it  represents  an  act 
as  conditional ;  present  tense ;  (why?):  second  person, 
singular  or  plural  number;  (why?):   Rule  XIII. 

III.  "The  boy  caught  the  horse." 

Canght  ....  is  a  verb;  (why?):  irregular;  (why?) :  give  the  prin- 
cipal parts:  transitive;  it  requires  an  object  to  com- 
plete its  meaning:  active  voice;  it  represents  its  sub- 
ject as  acting :  indicative  mode;  (why?):  past  tense; 
(why?):  third  person,  singular  number;  (why?): 
Rule  XIII. 

IV.  "We  heard  the  owl  hooting." 

Hooting  ...  is  a  participle;  it  partakes  of  the  properties  of  a 
verb  and  an  adjective :  present  participle ;  it  denotes 
continuance:  it  belongs  to  "owl".  Rule  XII.  "An 
adjective  or  participle  belongs  to  some  noun  or  pro- 
noun." 


V.  "I  study  to  improve." 
To  improTe  is  a  verb;  (why?) :  regular;  (why?):  give  the  prin- 
cipal parts:  transitive;  (why'?):  active  voice;  (why?): 
infinitive  mode;  it  expresses  action  without  affirming 
it:  it  depends  upon  "study".  Rule  XVII.  "An 
infinitive  not  used  as  a  noun  depends  upon  the  word 
it  limits." 


118  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

Parse  the  nouns,  pronouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  and  participles 

in  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  The  earth  rings  hollow  from  below.  2.  We  soon  shall 
reach  the  boundless  sea.  3.  The  night  was  tempestuous.  4. 
He  should  be  more  industrious.  5.  Remember  thy  Creator. 
6.  The  poor  must  work  in  their  grief.  7.  I  could  not  learn  that 
lesson.     8.  He  was  beaten  with  many  stripes. 

9.  Clarence  has  been  chosen  captain.  10.  They  might  have 
finished  their  task  yesterday.  11.  The  crops  were  destroyed  by 
grasshoppers.  12.  The  girls  were  playing  croquet.  13.  He  did 
not  return  my  umbrella.  14.  Is  he  writing  a  letter?  15.  Help 
us  to  help  each  other.  16.  Shake  off  the  dust  that  blinds  thy 
sight. 

17.  No  cheating  nor  bargaining  will  ever  get  a  single  thing 
out  of  Nature's  "establishment"  at  half  price. — Rmkin. 

18.  May  is  a  pious  fraud  of  the  almanac, 
A  ghastly  parody  of  real  Spring, 

Shaped  out  of  snow  and  breathed  with  eastern  winds. 

Lowell. 

Write  five  answers  to  questions  in   your  geography  lesson^   and 
parse  the  verbs. 

Write  the  first  two  sentences  of  a  composition  on  "iJisEy  Boys", 
and  parse  the  verbs. 


80.  False  Syntax. 

Caution  I. — Never  use  will  for  shall,  nor  would  for  should. 

Ex. — 1.  I  was  afraid  I  would  be  hurt.  2.  If  I  would  try,  I 
would  learn  fast.  3.  I  shall  go:  no  one  will  prevent  me.  4.  I 
would  be  very  careless  if  I  would  leave  my  books  at  home. 


FALSE    SYNTAX.  119 

Cantlon  II. —  Tense-forms  should  express  time  in  harmony 
with  that  indicated  by  other  parts  of  the  sentence. 

Ex. — 1.  They  have  visited  us  yesterday.  2.  You  may  take  a 
walk  after  you  finish  your  task.  3.  He  was  tardy  every  day  this 
week.  4.  I  would  help  you,  if  you  can 't  get  some  one  else  to  do 
po.     5.  He  was  under  obligations  to  have  assisted  me. 

Caution  III. — General  truths  should  be  expressed  in  the  pres- 

't  tense. 
4       Ex.— 1.  I  have  heard  that  each  star  was  a  sun.     2.  I  always 
I  thought  that  meteors  wer6  falling  stars.     3.  What  did  you  say  was 
I  the  capital  of  Indiana?     4.  I  should  think  it  was  time  for  school 
\to  be  dismissed.     5.  I  always  thought  that  dew  fell. 

Caution  IV. — Do  not  use  the  perfect  participle  to  express  pa^t 
time,  nor  the  past  tense  form  instead  of  the  perfect  participle. 

Ex. — 1.  He  come  here  last  week.     2.  He  done  it:  I  seen  him. 

3.  The  tree  had  fell,  and  it  was  broke  in  two.     4.  The  squirrel  had 
ran  up  a  tree.    5.  He  set  down  on  a  log. 

Caution  V. — Avoid  the  inelegant  use  of  participles  in  place 
of  other  forms. 

Ex. — 1,  Going  to  Congress  is  no  evidence  of  greatness.  2.  I  do 
not  like  being  punished.     3.  He  neglected  the  plowing  of  his  land. 

4.  Boys,  be  ashamed  of  being  found  in  bad  company. 

Caution  VI. — Do  not  use  is  n't  or  aint  for  is  not,  bare  n't 
or  baint  for  have  not,  'taint  for  it  is  not,  migrlit  of  for 
miglit  bave,  &c. 

Ex.^1.  'Taint  one  swallow  that  makes  a  summer.  2.  Jane 
haint  got  her  lesson.  3.  Aint  you  going  to  the  concert?  4.  Sam- 
uel might  of  done  his  task  long  ago.  5.  He  should  of  taken  the 
accommodation  train. 

Correct  all  inaccuracies  in  the  use  of  verbs  you  may  observe  in 
your  own  language  or  that  of  your  school-mates.  ■ 


i 
120  ELEMENTARY   GRAMMAR. 

Collect  the  following  sentences  by  reference  to  Rules  XIII  and  XIV: 
1.  Henry  and  Charles  was  very  much  disappointed.  2.  You 
was  there,  I  suppose.  3.  The  yoke  of  oxen  were  sold  for  a  hun- 
dred dollars.  4.  Ellen  are  not  at  school  to-day.  5.  The  scissors 
is  dull.  6.  The  fleet  were  seen  off  Hatteras.  7.  Time  and  tide 
waits  for  no  man. 


Qnestions. — What  is  a  verb?  A  transitive  verb?  An  intran- 
sitive verb?     A  copulative  verb? 

What  belong  to  verbs?  What  is  voice?  How  many  voices  are 
there?  What  is  the  active  voice?  The  passive  voice?  How  is 
the  passive  voice  formed  ? 

What  is  mode  ?  How  many  modes  are  there  ?  What  is  the 
indicative  mode?  The  subjunctive  mode?  The  potential  mode? 
The  imperative  mode?  The  infinitive  mode?  What  are  the  signs 
of  the  potential  mode?  The  sign  of  the  infinitive  mode?  When 
is  it  omitted  ? 

What  is  tense?  How  many  tenses  are  there?  What  is  the 
present  tense?  The  present  perfect?  The  past?  The  past  per- 
fect ?     the  future  ?     The  future  perfect  ? 

What  is  an  auxiliary  verb?     A  unipersonal  verb? 

What  is  conjugation?  What  are  the  principal  parts  of  a  verb? 
What  is  the  synopsis  of  a  verb?  Give  a  synopsis  of  "to  be".  Of 
"to  love",  in  both  voices. 

What  are  the  coordinate  forms  of  conjugation?  What  is  the 
progressive  form?  The  emphatic  form?  The  interrogative  form? 
Give  the  synopsis  of  each  form. 

What  is  a  regular  verb?  An  irregular  verb?  A  defective  verb? 
A  redundant  verb? 

Give  the  order  of  parsing  verbs. 

Repeat  the  cautions. 

THE    ADVERB. 
81.  Classes. 

1.  Adverbs  are  divided  into  five  classes  :  Adverbs 
of  Time,  Place,  Cause,  Manner,  and  Degree. 

2.  Adverbs  of  Time  answer  the  questions.  When?  How 
long?   How  often? 

Ex. — After,  again,  always,  early,  never,  frequently,  hereafter, 
lately,  immediately,  now,  often,  seldom,  then,  when,  &c. 


ADVERBS.  121 

3.  Adverbs  of  Place  answer  the  questions,  Where  f  Whither  f 

Whence  ? 

Ex. — Above,  below,  hither,  here,  there,  herein,  whence,  some- 
where, far,  yonder,  forth,  aloof,  away,  backwards,  first,  &c. 

4.  Adverbs  of  Caase  answer  the  questions,  Why?  Where- 
fore ? 

Ex. — Wherefore,  therefore,  then,  why? 

5.  Adverbs  of  Manner  answer  the  question,  Hoiv  ? 

Ex. — Amiss,  anyhow,  well,  badly,  easily,  sweetly,  indeed,  nay, 
no,  perhaps,  peradventure,  perchance,  &c. 

6.  Adverbs  of  Degree   answer  the  questions.  How  much  f 

How  little  ? 

Ex. — Almost,  enough,  even,  equally,  much,  more,  little,  wholly, 
partly,  only,  scarcely,  nearly,  too,  chiefly,  &c. 

7.  An  Adverbial  Pbrase  is  a  combination  of  words  used 
and  parsed  as  a  single  adverb;  as,  "/»  generaV\  "hand  in 
hand",  "no  more", 

8.  Conjunctive  Adverbs  are  those  which  connect  two  prop- 
ositions, and  modify  a  word  in  each. 

Ex. — "I  shall  see  you  when  I  return."  The  conjunctive  adverb 
"when"  connects  the  two  clauses,  "I  shall  see  you"  and  "I  re- 
turn", modifying  "shall  see"  in  the  first  clause,  and  "return"  in 
the  second. 

82.  Comparison  of  Adverbs. 

1.  Many  adverbs  admit  of  comparison. 

2.  Three  adverbs  are  compared  by  adding  er  and  est  to  the 
simple  form,  viz.:  fast,  faster,  fastest;  often,  oftener,  oftejiest; 
soon,  sooner,  soonest. 

3.  Adverbs  ending  in  ly  are  compared  by  prefixing  more 
and  most,  less  and  lea^t  to  the  simple  form;  as,  wisely,  more 
wisely y  m^st  wisely;  swiftly,  less  swiftly,  least  swiftly. 


122  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

4,   Some  adverbs  are  compared  irregularly ;   as,  well,  better, 
best;  little,  less,  least. 

83.  Order  of  Parsing. 

1.  An  Adverb,  and  why? 

2.  Compare  it. 

3.  Tell  what  it  modifies.     Rule. 


84.  Models  for  Parsing. 

I.  "The  soldiers  fought  bravely." 
Bravely  .  .  is  an  adverb;  it  is  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a 
verb:  compared,  pos.  bravely,  com.  more  bravely,  sup. 
most  bravely:  it  modifies  "fought".  Rule  XVIII. 
"Adverbs  modify  verbs,  adjectives,  participles,  and 
adverbs." 

II.  "I  will  go  whenever  you  wish." 

WheneTer  is  an  adverb;  (why?):  conjunctive;  it  connects  two 
clauses,  and  modifies  a  word  in  each :  it  modifies 
"will  go"  and  "wish":    Rule  XVIII. 

EXERCISES. 

Parse  ike  nonns.  pronouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  a7id  adverbs 
in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  I  saw  him  frequently.  2.  You  must  call  often.  3.  How 
rapidly  the  moments  fly.  '4.  He  has  been  reproved  again  and 
again.  5.  Perhaps  he  can  tell  you.  6.  Doubtless,  he  is  a  wise 
man.  7.  Peradventure,  the  old  dragon  is  asleep.  8.  I  have 
not  seen  him  since  I  returned  from  California. 

9.  Live  and  love, 

Doing  both  nobly,  because  lowlily. 
Live  and  work,  strcagly,  because  patiently. 

Mrs.  Browning. 


PREPOSITIONS.  123 

Write  the  first  two  sentences  of  a  composition  on  "  My  Last  Taca- 
tlon",  and  parse  the  verbs  and  adverbs. 

85.  False  Syntax. 

Cantlon  I. — Avoid  the  use  of  two  negatives  to  express  negation. 

Ex. — 1.  I  don't  know  nothing  about  geometry.  2.  Don't  say 
nothing  to  nobody  about  it.  3.  You  do  n't  look  no  better  than  you 
did  yesterday.  4.  We  did  n't  find  nobody  at  home.  5.  The  ped- 
dler had  n't  got  no  needles. 

Caution  II. — Do  not  use  adjectives  as  adverbs. 

Ex. — 1.  You  ought  to  read  slower.  2.  He  does  not  speak  dis- 
tinct. 3.  Helen  seems  tolerable  well.  4.  His  voice  was  scarce 
heard.  5.  Slie  dresses  neat.  6.  I  am  that  hungry  I  could  eat  any 
tiling.     7.  He  was  exceeding  glad  to  hear  from  you. 

Observe  and  correct  all  inaccuracies  in  the  use  of  adverbs  in  your 
own  conversation  and  that  of  your  school-mates. 


Questions. — What  is  an  adverb?  Into  how  many  classes  are 
adverbs  divided?  What  are  adverbs  of  <me  .^  Of  place?  Of  man- 
ner? Of  degree?  What  is  an  adverbial  phrase?  What  are  con- 
junctive adverbs?  Are  adverbs  ever  compared?  How  are  three 
adverbs  compared?  How  are  adverbs  ending  in  ly  compared? 
How  are  other  adverbs  compared  ? 

Repeat  the  order  of  parsing  an  adverb. 

Repeat  the  cautions. 


THE   PREPOSITION. 
86.  General  Remarks. 

1.  The  relations  between  objects  of  thought  are  sometimes 
so  obvious  that  they  need  no  expression.  This  occurs  when 
nouns  denoting  time,  distance,  measure,  direction,  or  value  folloAV 
verbs  or  adjectives;   as,  "He  left  yesterday";  "He  lives  south 


124  ELEMENTARY   GRAMMAR. 

of  this  town".    Such  words  are  said  to  be  in  the  objective  case 
without  a  governing  word. 

The  names  of  things  following  the  passive  fonns  of  the 
verbs  ask,  lend,  teach,  refuse,  provide,  and  some  others  are  also 
in  the  objective  case  without  a  governing  word;  aa^  "I  was 
asked  aC question ^\'   "I  was  taught  grammar". 

3.  A  phrase  commencing  with  a  preposition  is  called  a 
prepositional  phrase. 

4.  The  infinitive  is  usually  called  a  phrase. 

5.  The  words^  of  some  phrases  need  not  be  separated  in 
parsing ;  as,  in  vain,  on  high,  round  and  round,  in  general,  &c. 
Parse  such  combinations  as  single  words. 

87.  Order  of  Parsing. 

1.  A  Preposition,  and  why? 

2.  What  relation  does  it  show? 

3.  Rule. 

88.  Model  for  Parsing. 

"They  went  aboard  the  ship." 
Aboard  is  a  preposition;  it  shows  the  relation  between  its  object 
and  some  other  word :  it  shows  the  relation  between 
"ship"  and  "went".  Rule  XIX.  "A  preposition  shows 
the  relation  of  its  object  to  the  word  upon  which  the 
latter  depends." 

EXERCISES. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  parse  the  nouns  and  prep- 
ositions : 

1.  A  lark  reared  her  brood  ^ini^.  the  corn.  2.  They  wan- 
dered in  throngs  down  the  valley.  3.  Emma  came  from  the 
village,  through  the  woods,  to  our  house.     4.  We  have  seen  the 


CONJUNCTIONS.  125 

moon  rising  behind  the  eastern  pines.  5.  I  came  from  beyond 
Richmond  to-day.  (Parse  "to-day"  in  the  objective  case 
without  a  governing  word,  by  Rule  VIII.)  '6.  I  went  to  De- 
troit Vesterday. 

7.  The  locust  by  the  wall 

Stabs  the  noon-silence  with  bk  s^ai^  alarm. 
A  single  hay^'c/irt  down,  the-4«sty  road 
Creaks  slowly,  with  its  driver  fast  asleep 
On  the  load'ii  top. —  Whittier. 

Write  the  first  two  sentences  of  a  composition  on  "Onr  Flag", 
and  parse  the  prepositions. 

Write  the  answers  to  three   questions  iii  your  arithmetic  lesson, 
and  parse  the  prepositions. 

Parse  all  the  prepositions   in   three  sentences  of  your  reading 
lesson. 


Questions. — What  is  a  preposition  ?  Do  the  relations  between 
objects  of  thoufflit  always  need  expression?  When  do  they  not 
need  expression  ?  What  words  are  in  the  objective  case  without  a 
governing  word?  What  is  a  prepositional  phrase?  Can  the  words 
in  all  phrases  be  separated?  How  should  such  combinations  be 
parsed  ? 

Repeat  the  order  of  parsing  a  preposition. 


THE   CONJUNCTION. 
89.  Classes. 

1.  Conjunctions  are  divided  into  three  classes: 
Copulative,  Disjunctive,  and  Correlative. 

2.  Copulative  Conjunctions  join  on  words,  phrases, 
or  members  denoting  addition,  consequence,  cause,  or 
supposition. 


126  ELEMENTARY   GRAMMAR. 

Ex. — And,  also,  as,  because,  consequently,  even,  for,  if, 
so,  since,  seeing,  tlian,  that,  then,  moreover,  therefore, 
wherefore. 

3.  Disjunctive  Coiijunetions  join  on  words,  phrases, 
or  members  denoting  opposition  of  meaning. 

Ex. — Although,  though,  but,  either,  neither,  except,  lest, 
nor,  notwithstanding,  or,  provided,  save,  still,  unless,  whether, 
whereas,  yet. 

4.  Correlative  Conjunctions  are  copulatives  or  dis- 
junctives used  in  pairs,  one  referring  or  answering  to 
the  other. 

Ex. — Both  —  and,  as — as,  so  —  as,  so — that,  either — or, 
neither  —  nor,  if — then,  though — yet,  nevertheless,  not 
only — but  also,    whether  —  or,    or — or,    nor — nor.  ■ 

Rem. — Such  combinations  as  as  if,  as  though,  as  well  as, 
as  soon  as,  forasmuch  as,  in  so  much  that,  but  also,  but  like- 
wise, not  only,  &c.,  should  be  parsed  as  single  conjunctions  or 
conjunctive  adverbs. 

90.  Order  of  Parsing. 

1.  A  Conjunction,  and  why? 

2.  Copulative,  Disjunctive,  or  Correlative,  and  why  7 

3.  What  does  it  connect?     Kule. 


91.  Models  for  Parsing. 

I.  "  Ellen  and  Mary  study  algebra." 
And  ...  is  a  conjunction;  it  connects  words:    copulative;   it  de- 
notes   addition:     it   connects    "Emma"    and    "Mary". 
Rule  XX.    "Conjunctions  connect  words,  phrases,   and 
sentences." 


THE    INTERJECTION.  127 

II.  "  Neither  Ellen  nor  Mary  learned  the  lesson." 
Jfeitber  .  .  .  nor  .  .  .  are  conjunctions;    (why?):    correlative;    one 
refers  or  answers  to  the  other:    "neither"  introduces  the 
sentence,   and    "nor"    connects   "Ellen"   and   "Mary": 
Kule  XX. 

EXERCISES. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  parse  the  conjunctions : 

1.  Cold  and  hunger  awake  not  her  care.  2.  He  came  and 
went  like  a  pleasant  thought.  3.  Wisdom  is  the  principal 
thing;  therefore  get  wisdom.  4.  We  can  not  thrive  unless  we 
are  industrious.  5.  Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in 
him.     6.  He  was  not  only  proud,  but  vain  also. 

Write  the  first  two   sentences   of  a   composition   on   "Popping^ 
Corn",  and  parse  the  conjunctions. 

Parse  all  the  conjunctions  in  three  sentences  of  your  reading 
lesson. 


Questions. — What  is  a  conjunction?  Into  how  many  classes 
are  conjunctions  divided?  What  are  copulative  conjunctions? 
Disjunctive  conjunctions?  Correlative  conjunctions  ?  How  should 
as  if,  not  only,  &c.,  be  parsed  ? 

Kepeat  the  order  of  parsing  a  conjunction. 


THE    INTERJECTION. 
92.  Remarks. 

1.  Interjections  are  expressions  of  emotion  only. 
They  are  called  interjections  because  they  are  thrown 
in  between  connected  parts  of  discourse,  though  gen- 
erally found  at  the  commencement  of  a  sentence. 

2.  Most  words  when  used  as  exclamations  may  be  treated 
as  interjections:  as,  "What/  art  thou  mad?"  "Revenge!  cried 
he". 


128  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 


93.  Order  of  Parsing. 

1.  An  Interjection,  and  why? 

2.  Kule. 


94.  Model  for  Parsing. 

"Eh!    are  you  sure  of  it?" 
Ell!  ....  is   an    iTderjection ;    it  denotes   some    sudden    emotion. 
Kule  XXI.  "An  interjection  has  no  dependence  upon 
other  words." 

EXERCISES. 

Parse  all  the  words  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Hah!  it  is  a  sight  to  freeze  one!  2.  Ah_I  haj  you 
thought  me  blind,  did  you?  3.  O!  O!  'tis  foul!  4.  O  excel- 
lent young  man !  5.  Alas,  what  have  I  seen  or  known !  6. 
Mercy,  how  it  burns !  7.  Fie  upon  thee !  8.  Soft !  I  did  but 
dream.     9.  Tush !  tush !  man,  I  made  no  reference  to  you. 


Cliiestions. — What  is  an   interjection?     Why  is  it  called  an 
interjection  ? 

Kepeat  the  order  of  parsing  an  interjection. 


95.  Simple  and  Compound  Sentences. 

"Wheat  is  a  vegetable."  This  sentence  consists  of  a  single 
proposition.     It  is  called  a  Simple  Sentence. 

1.  A  Simple  Sentence  consists  of  a  single  prop- 
osition. 

"Wheat  grows  in  the  field,  and  men  reap  it."  This  sen- 
tence consists  of  two  propositions,  each  of  which  will  make 
complete  sense  when  standing  alone.  It  is  called  a  Compound 
Sentence, 


SIMPLE    AND   COMPOUND    SENTENCES.  129 

2.  A  Compound  Sentence  consists  of  two  or  more 
connected  sentences,  each  of  which  will  make  complete 
sense  when  standing  alone. 

Rem. — The  sentences  of  which  a  compound  sentence  is 
composed  are  called  Members. 

Model  for  Analysis. 

"  Lead  us  not  into  temptation,  but  deliver  us  from  evil." 
This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):    compound;  it  consists  of  two  con- 
nected sentences,  each  of  which  will  make  complete  sense  when 
standing  alone.     "  Lead  us  not  into  temptation  "  is  the  first  mem- 
ber;  "deliver  us  from  evil",  the  second  member. 

Thou,  understood,  is  the  subject  of  the  first  member ;  lead,  the 
predicate.  "Lead"  is  modified  by  as,  an  objective  element;  by 
not,  an  adverbial  element ;  and  by  the  phrase,  Into  temptation, 
an  adverbial  element. 

Thoa,  understood,  is  the  subject  of  the  second  member:  de- 
liver, the  predicate.  "Deliver"  is  modified  by  as,  an  objective 
element,  and  by  the  phrase,  from  evil,  an  adverbial  element. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Night  comes  to  our  bed,  and  breathes  it  in  our  ears.  2. 
He  lived  for  his  love  —  for  his  country  he  died.  3.  Art  is 
long,  and  time  is  fleeting.  4.  You  must  reform,  or  you  will  be 
ruined- 

5.  She  raised  her  glazed  eyes,  and  looked  about  with  a 
faint  wildness.  6.  The  dignity  of  woman  has  its  peculiar 
character;  it  awes  more  than  that  of  man.  7.  The  earth  is 
hidden  yet,  but  not  dead.  8.  It  is  the  day  of  man's  trial,  not 
the  time  of  his  reward. 

Write  five  eomponnd  sentenees,  efuch  containing  tioo  members. 

Ascertain  what  sentences  in  your  reading  lesson  are  compound. 
E.  G.— 9. 


130  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

Questions. — What  is  a  simple  sentence?     A  compound  sen- 
tence ?     What  are  the  parts  of  a  compound  sentence  called  ? 


96.  Complex  Sentences. 

The  sentence,  "I  know  where  gold  is  found"  contains  two 
propositions:  "I  know"  and  "where  gold  is  found".  The 
conjunctive  adverb  "where"  connects  these  propositions,  mod- 
ifying "know"  in  the  first,  and  "is  found"  in  the  second. 

These  propositions  are  called  Clauses.     (See  section  26.) 

The  first  clause,  "I  know",  makes  complete  sense  when 
standing  alone,  and  is  therefore  called  the  leading  or  principal 
clause. 

1.  A  Principal  Oaiise  is  one  which  makes  com- 
plete sense  when  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sen- 
tence. 

The  second  clause,  "  where  gold  is  found  ",  does  not  make 
complete  sense  when  standing  alone,  and  is  therefore  called  a 
dependent  or  subordinate  clause. 

2.  A  SulM>i*dinate  Clause  is  one  which  does  not 
make  complete  sense  when  separated  from  the  rest  of 
the  sentence. 

Rem. — All  the  elements  of  a  sentence  may  be  clauses : 
hence,  there  are  Subject,  Predicate,  Objective,  Adjective,  and 
Adverbial  Clauses. 

3.  A  Complex  Sentence  consists  of  a  principal 
clause,  some  part  of  which  is  modified  by  one  or  more 
subordinate  clauses. 

Rem. — When  a  complex  sentence  contains  many  clauses, 
each  clause  should  be  separately  analyzed  in  the  order  indi- 
cated by  its  position. 


COMPLEX    SENTENCES.  131 

Models  for  Analysis. 

I.  "  He  dared  to  lead  where  any  dared  to  follow." 
This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):   complex;  it  is  composed  of  a  prin- 
cipal and  a  subordinate  clause.     "He  dared  to  lead"  is  the  prin- 
cipal clause,  and  "where  any  dared    to   follow",  the   subordinate 
clause. 

He  is  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause;  (why?):  dared,  the 
predicate;  (why?).  "Dared"  is  modified  by  the  phrase,  to  lead, 
an  objective  element :  "  to  lead "  is  modified  by  the  adverbial 
clause,  where  any  dared  to  follow,  of  which,  any  is  the  sub- 
ject, dared,  the  predicate,  and  the  phrase,  to  follow,  the  object, 
which  is  modified  by  where,  an  adverbial  element.  "Where"  is 
also  a  connective,  joining  the  subordinate  clause  to  "to  lea  J",  the 
object  of  the  principal  clause. 

II.   "  He  that  hateth,  dissembleth  with  his  lips." 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?):  complex;  (why?).  "He  dissem- 
bleth with  his  lips"  is  the  principal,  and  "that  hateth",  the  sub- 
ordinate clause. 

He  is  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause;  (why?):  dissem- 
bleth, the  predicate;  (why?).  "He"  is  modified  by  the  clause, 
that  hateth,  an  adjective  element,  of  which  that  is  the  subject, 
and  hateth,  the  predicate:  "dissembleth"  is  modified  by  the 
phrase,  with  his  lips,  an  adverbial  element:  "lips"  by  his,  an 
adjective  element. 

.EXERCISES. 

1.  He  that  flattereth,  deceiveth  his  neighbor.  2.  The  boy 
that  you  saw  is  my  younger  brother.  3.  He  is  frightened 
when  it  thunders.  4.  I  can  not  study  where  there  is  much 
noise.  5.  I  would  pay  you,  if  I  had  the  money.  6.  Was  that 
man  whom  you  addressed,  your  guardian?  7.  He  is  a  good 
man,  though  very  eccentric. 

8,  Nature  never  did  betray 

The  heart  that  loved  her. —  Wordsworth. 


132  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

9.  The  poor  too  often  turn  away,  unheard, 

From  hearts  that  shut  against  them,  with  a  sound 
That  shall  be  heard  in  heaven. — Longfellow. 

Write  five  sentences,  iising  clauses  as  subjects. 
Model. — ''Haste  makes  waste"  is  a  true  saying. 

Write  five  sentences,  usiiig  clauses  as  predicates. 
Model. — The  rumor  is,  that  Mr.  Judson  has  failed. 

Write  five  sentences,  using  clauses  as  objects. 
Model. — I  believe  that  the  earth  is  round. 

Write  five  sentences,  using  clauses  as  adjective  elements. 

Model. — The  report  that  he  is  insane,  is  unfounded. 

Write  five  sentences,  using  clauses  as  adverbial  elements. 

Mo<lci. — Our  teacher  is  delighted  when  we  are  studious. 


Questions. — Wliat  is  a  clause?  A  principal  clause?  A  sub- 
ordinate clause?  A  complex  sentence?  How  many  elements  of  a 
sentence  may  be  complex?     How  many  kinds  of  clauses  are  there? 


97.  Modified  Subject  and  Predicate. 

1.  The  Graiiiiuafioal  Nnbjeet  of  a  proposition  is 
the  unmodified  subject. 

Ex. — "A.  great  storm  is  raging."  "Storm"  is  the  gram- 
matical subject. 

2.  The  Complex  or  Lii^ical  Subject  is  the  gram- 
matical subject,  taken  with  all  its  modifiers. 

Ex. — "A  great  storm  is  raging."  "A  great  storm"  is  the 
logical  subject.  "He  who  runs  may  read."  "He  who  runs" 
is  the  logical  subject. 


ELLIPSIS.  133 

3.  The  Grammafieal  Preilicate  of  a  proposition 
is  the  unmodified  predicate. 

Ex. — "The  storm  rages  furiously."  "Rages"  is  the  gram- 
matical predicate. 

4.  The  Complex  or  liOgical  Predicate  is  the  gram- 
matical predicate,  taken  with  all  its  modifiers. 

Ex. — "The  storm  rages  furiously."  "Rages  furiously"  is 
the  logical  predicate.  "The  wind  blows  with  great  violence." 
"Blows  with  great  violence"  is  the  logical  predicate;  "blows" 
is  the  grammatical  predicate. 

Rem. — All  the  parts  of  a  sentence  may  be  simple  or  com- 
plex; but  it  is  not  necessary,  in  analysis,  to  distinguish  them 
as  such.  The  distinction,  however,  may  be  observed  with  the 
subject  and  predicate. 

Poi7it  out  the  g-raminatlcal  and  log^ical  subjects  and  predi- 
cates iji  any  of  the-  preceding  sentences. 

Write  the  first  two  sentences  of  a  composition  on  "coasting^", 
and  point  out  the  g^rammatical  and  log^ical  subjects  and 
predicates. 


Questions. — What  is  the  grammatical  subject  of  a  proposition  ? 
The  complex  or  logical  subject?  The  grammatical  predicate? 
The  complex  or  logical  predicate? 


98.  Ellipsis. 

1.  £llipsis  is  the  omission  of  one  or  more  words 
of  a  sentence.  The  words  omitted  are  said  to  be  un- 
derstood. 

Rem. — If  required  in  analysis  or  parsing,  the  words  omitted 
must  be  supplied. 


134  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

2.  All  but  the  most  important  part  of  a  sentence 
may  be  omitted. 

1.  Noans  may  be  omitted;  as,  "Ye  are  Christ's  [dis- 
ciples] ". 

2.  Pronouns  may  be  omitted ;    as,  "  Come  [  fhou  ]  ". 

3.  Adjectives  may  be  omitted,  as,  "A  slate  and  [a]  pen- 
cil"; "That  kind  of  exercise  may  be  good  for  you,  but  not 
[good]  for  me". 

4.  Participles  may  be  omitted;  as,  "This  [being]  done, 
we  resumed  our  journey". 

5.  Verbs  may  be  omitted;  as,  "I'll  [go]  hence  to  Lou- 
don";   "[To  be]  England's  friend  [is  to  be]  Ireland's  foe". 

6.  Adverbs  may  be  omitted,  as,  "He  acted  honorably,  but 
you  did  not  [act  honorably]". 

7.  Prepositions  and  Conjnnctions  may  be  omitted ;  as, 
"He  g^ve  [to]  me  an  orange";  "A  good,  [and]  wise,  and 
truthful  friend". 

8.  Entire  Phrases  and  Clauses  may  be  omitted;  as,  "You 
have  more  to  do  than  you  can  accomplish;  I,  less  [to  do  than 
I  can  accomplish  ]  ". 


Questions. — Wliat  is  ellipsis?     When  are  words  said,  to  be  un- 
derstood?    What  parts  of  a  sentence  may  be  omitted? 


99.  Abridgment. 

1.  Complex  l§^iitences  are  often  changed  into  sim- 
ple ones  by  abridging  their  subordinate  clauses. 

Rem. — ^This  is  done  by  dropping  the  subject  or  changing  its 
case,  and  by  changing  the  copula  or  verbal  predicate  to  an 
infinitive  or  a  participle. 


ABRIDGMENT.  135 

Ex. —"I  believe  that  he  is  insane",  is  equivalent  to,  "I  believe 
him  to  be  insane''.  ^^When  the  mayor  arrived,  the  rabble  dis- 
persed", is  equivalent  to,  "TAe  mayor  having  airived,  the  rabble 
dispersed  ". 

2.  In  analyzing,  let  the  pupil  expand  each  abridged  clause 
into  a  complete  proposition,  and  state  its  oflace  or  use  in  the 
sentence. 


Models  for  Analysis. 

I.  "Forward!" 

This  is  a  sentence;  (why?) :  its  subject  and  predicate  are  omitted 
by  ellipsis.  It  is  equivalent  to,  "March  ye  forward!"  Ye  is  the 
subject;  (why?):  march,  the  predicate;  (why?).  "March"  ia 
modified  by  forward,  an  adverbial  element. 

II,  "The  snow  being  deep,  we  could  not  proceed." 

This  is  a  sc/i^e/ice/  (why?).  We  is  the  subject ;  (why?):  could 
proceed,  the  predicate;  (why?).  "Could  proceed"  is  modified 
by  not,  an  adverbial  element,  and  by  the  absolute  phrase,  the 
snoYv  being:  deep,  an  adverbial  element,  equivalent  to,  "be- 
cause the  snow  was  deep".  Snow"  is  modified  by  the  and 
beingr  deep,  both  adjective  elements. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Attention!  2.  On,  Stanley,  on!  3.  A  rope  to  the  side! 
4.  Magnificent!  5.  How  now,  my  old  friend.  6.  Honest,  my 
lord?  7.  Better  late  than  never.  8.  Are  you  cold? — Some- 
what 

9.  No  rain  having  fallen,  the  crops  were  destroyed.  10. 
There  is  no  danger  of  his  falling.  11.  The  storm  continuing, 
we  dropped  anchor.  12.  Having  led  an  active  life,  he  could 
not  endure  confinement.  13.  Being  human,  he  is  not  perfect. 
14.  Honor  being  lost,  all  is  lost. 


136  ELEMENTARY   GRAMMAR. 


100.  Rules  of  Syntax. 

1.  Syntax  is  that  part  of  grammar  which  treats  of 
the  construction  of  sentences. 

Rem. — All  the  exercises  in  the  formation  of  sentences,  in 
this  work,  are  exercises  in  syntax. 

2.  A  Rule  of  Syntax  is  a  statement  of  the  man- 
ner in  Avhich  words  should  be  used  in  sentences. 

Ride  I.  The  subject  of  a  proposition  is  in  the  nom- 
inative case. 

Rem.— Any  tiling  that  may  be  used  as  a  noun  may  be  the  sub- 
ject; as,  "A  is  a  vowel";  "To  play  is  pleasant";  ^^ That  the  times 
are  hard  is  undeniable". 

Rule  II.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  predicate 
of  a  preposition,  is  in  the  nominative  case. 

Rem. — A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  predicate,  denotes  the 
same  person  or  thing  as  the  subject,  and  must  agree  with  it  in  case, 
and  generally  in  number  and  person. 

Rule  III,  A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  to  limit  the 
meaning  of  a  noun  denoting  a  different  person  or  thing, 
is  in  the  possessive  case. 

Rem.  1. — The  limited  noun  is  sometimes  omitted;  as,  "We 
visited  St.  Paul's  [church]" 

Rem.  2. — The  limited  noun  need  not  be  plural  because  the 
possessive  is  plural;   as,  "Their  intention  was  good". 

Rule  IV.  A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  to  limit  the 
meaning  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  denoting  the  same  per- 
son or  thing,  is  in  the  same  case. 


RULES    OF    SYNTAX.  137 

Rem.  1. — A  noun  may  be  in  apposition  with  a  sentence,  and  a 
sentence  with  a  noun;  as,  "ife  is  dangei^ously  ill — a  fact  that  can 
not  be  denied";  "Remember  Franklin's  maxim,  ^God  helps  them 
that  help  themselves^  ". 

Rem.  2. — A  word  in  apposition  with  another,  is  frequently  in- 
troduced by  as  or  or;  as,  '^As  mayor  of  the  city,  /  feel  aggrieved  " ; 
"  mayor "  being  in  apposition  with  "  I " :  "Maize,  or  Indian  corn, 
is  extensively  cultivated". 

Rule  V.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  independently  is 
in  the  absolute  case. 

Rule  VI.  The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  in  the  act- 
ive voice,  or  of  its  participles,  is  in  the  objective  case. 

Rem.  1. — A  phrase  beginning  with  a  noun  or  pronoun  may  be 
the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  ;  as,  "I  want  friends  to  love". 

Rem.  2. — Some  verbs  have  two  objects,  one  representing  a  per- 
son, the  other  a  thing;  as,  "He  asked  me  a  question^'.  When  such 
verbs  are  used  in  the  passive  voice,  if  the  thing  is  made  nomina- 
tive, the  person  is  governed  by  a  preposition,  expressed  or  under- 
stood :  if  the  person  is  made  nominative,  the  thing  is  in  the  object- 
ive case  without  a  governing  word. 

Rem.  3. — A  noun  or  pronoun  following  the  infinitive  to  be,  is 
frequently  in  the  objective  case  in  apposition  with  a  word  which 
precedes  it;  as,  "I  did  not  think  it  to  be  him";  "him"  is  in  ap- 
position with  "it":  "Whom  do  you  take  rae  to  be?"  "whom"  is 
in  apposition  with  "me". 

Rule  VII.  The  object  of  a  preposition  is  in  the  ob 
jective  case. 

Rule  Vm.  Nouns  denoting  time,  distance,  measure, 
or  value,  after  verbs  and  adjectives,  are  in  the  objective 
case  without  a  governing  word. 

Ex.— "He  came  home  yesterday."  Both  "home"  and  "yester- 
day" are  m  the  objective  case  without  a  governing  word. 


138  ELEMENTARY   GRAMMAR. 

Rem. — Nouns  and  pronouns  following  the  passive  forms  of  cer- 
tain verbs,  are  in  the  objective  case  without  a  governing  word ;  as, 
"I  was  taught  grammar''\-  "He  was  offered  a  situation". 

Rule  IX.  Pronouns  must  agree  with  their  anteced- 
ents in  gender,  person,  and  number. 

Rem. — A  pronoun  used  instead  of  a  collective  noun,  denoting 
unity,  should  be  in  the  neuter  singular :  one  used  instead  of  a  col- 
lective noun,  denoting  plurality,  should  be  plural,  taking  the  gen- 
der of  the  individuals  composing  the  collection. 

Rule  X.  A  pronoun,  with  two  or  more  antecedents 
in  the  singular,  connected  by  a7id,  must  be  plural. 

Rem. — when  the  antecedents  are  the  names  of  the  same  person 
or  thing,  the  pronoun  must  be  singular:  when  they  are  limited 
by  each,  every,  or  no,  the  pronoun  must  be  singular :  when  the 
antecedents,  taken  together,  are  regarded  as  a  single  thing,  the 
pronoun  must  be  singular. 

Ex. — "The  patriot  and  statesman  receives  his  reward";  "Each 
officer,  each  private,  did  his  duty";  ^^ Bread  and  milk  is  healthy 
food  ". 

Rule  XI.  A  noun  or  pronoun,  with  two  or  more 
antecedents  in  the  singular,  connected  by  or  or  nor, 
must  be  singular. 

Rem. — When  one  of  the  antecedents  is  plural,  it  should  be 
placed  last,  and  the  pronoun  should  be  plural;  as,  "Neither  the 
farmer  nor  his  sons  were  aware  of  their  danger  ". 

Rule  XII.  An  adjective  or  participle  belongs  to 
some  noun  or  pronoun. 

Rem. — ^An  adjective  used  as  a  predicate  belongs  to  the  subject. 

Rule  xm.  A  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in 
person  and  number. 


RULES    OF    SYNTAX.  139 

Rule  XIV.  A  verb,  with  two  or  more  subjects  in 
the  singular,  connected  by  and^  must  be  plural. 

Rem. — When  two  or  more  subjects  in  the  singular  are  but  dif- 
ferent names  for  the  same  thing,  the  verb  should  be  singular;  as, 
^^ Descent  and  fall  to  us  is  adverse."  When  two  or  more  singular 
subjects  are  emphatically  distinguished,  the  verb  should  be  singu- 
lar; as,  "Every  bird  and  beast  cowers  before  the  wild  blast". 

Rule  XV.  A  verb,  with  two  or  more  subjects  in  the 
singular,  connected  by  or  or  noi\  must  be  singular. 

Rule  XVI.  An  infinitive  may  be  used  as  a  noun  in 
any  case  except  the  possessive. 

Rem. — The  sign  to  should  never  be  separated  from  the  rest  of 
the  infinitive.    "  To  rapidly  write"  should  be,  "  To  write  rapidly^'. 

Rule  XVn.  An  infinitive  not  used  as  a  noun,  de- 
pends upon  the  word  it  limits. 

Rem. — An  infinitive  may  depend  upon  any  of  the  parts  of 
speech,  except  the  preposition,  conjunction,  and  interjection. 

Rule  XVin.  Adverbs  modify  verbs,  adjectives,  par- 
ticiples, and  adverbs. 

Rem. — Adverbs  also  modify  phrases  and  entire  propositions; 
as,  "He  lives  jmt  around  the  corner";  ^^Ve)i,ly,  ye  are  the 
people". 

Rule  XIX.  A  preposition  shows  the  relation  of  its 
object  to  the  word  upon  which  the  latter  depends. 

Rule  XX.  Conjunctions  connect  words,  phrases, 
members,  and  clauses. 

Rule  XXI.  Interjections  have  no  dependence  upon 
other  words. 


140  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 


101.  Miscellaneous  Exercises. 

1.  She  saw  a  glory  in  each  cloud.  2.  Still  waters  are  com- 
monly deepest.  3.  To-morrow  may  be  brighter  than  to-day. 
4.  Few  days  pass  without  some  clouds.  5.  She  made  acquaint- 
ance with  the  birds  that  fluttered  by.  6.  It  was  a  harper, 
wandering  with  his  harp. 

7.  How  long  didst  thou  think  that  his  silence  was  slumber? 
8.  At  length  the  sun  departed,  setting  in  a  sea  of  gold.  9.  Tlie 
smooth  sea,  the  serene  atmosphere,  the  mild  zephyr,  are  the 
proper  emblems  of  a  gentle  temper,  and  a  peaceful  life. 

10.  'Tis  greatly  wise  to  talk  with  our  past  lives. 
And  ask  them  what  report  they  bore  to  heaven. 

11.  The  night,  methinks,  is  but  the  daylight  sick.  12.  Evils 
have  been  more  painful  to  us  in  the  prospect  than  in  the  ac- 
tual pressure.  13.  A  written  or  printed  paper,  posted  in  a 
public  place,  is  called  a  placard.  14.  Few  are  qualified  to 
shine  in  company;  but  it  is  in  most  men's  power  to  be  agree- 
able. 

15.  How  often  have  I  blessed  the  coming  day. 
When  toil  i-emitting  lent  its  turn  to  play. 
And  all  the  village  train,  from  labor  free, 
Led  up  their  sports  beneath  the  spreading  tree. 

Goldsmith. 

16.  Alas,  we  think  not  that  we  daily  see 
About  our  hearths,  angels  that  are  to  be, 
Or  may  be  if  they  will. — Leigh  Hunt. 

Yl.  The  insect  tribe  are  here:  the  ant  toils  on 
With  its  white  burden ;   in  its  netted  web 
Gray  glistening  o'er  the  bush,  the  spider  lurkj, 
A  close-crouched  ball,  out-darting  as  a  hum 
Tells  its  trapped  pray,  and  looping  quick  its  threads, 
Chains  into  helplessness  the  buzzing  wings. — Street 


MISCELLANEOUS    EXERCISES.  141 

18.  Princes  have  but  their  titles  for  their  glories, 

An  outward  honor  for  an  inward  toil. — Shakspeare. 

19.  My  soul  is  an  enchanted  boat. 
Which,  like  a  sleeping  swan,  doth  float 

Upon  the  silver  waves  of  thy  sweet  singing; 

And  thine  doth  like  an  angel  sit 

Beside  the  helm  conducting  it, 
While  all  the  winds  with  melody  are  ringing. — Shelley. 

20.  The  year  leads  round  the  seasons  in  a  choir 
Forever  charming  and  forever  new, 
Blending  the  grand,  the  beautiful,  the  gay, 

The  mournful  and  the  tender  in  one  strain. — Percival. 

21.  King  David's  limbs  were  weary.     He  had  fled 
From  far  Jerusalem ;  and  now  he  stood, 
With  his  faint  people,  for  a  little  rest 

Upon  the  shores  of  Jordan.     The  light  wind 
Of  morn  was  stirring,  and  he  bared  his  brow 
To  its  refreshing  breath ;   for  he  had  worn 
The  mourner's  covering,  and  he  had  not  felt 
That  he  could  see  his  people  until  now. —  Willu. 

22.  One  hour  beheld  him  since  the  tide  he  stemmed, 
Disguised,  discovered,  conquering,  ta'en,  condemned, 
A  chief  on  land,  an  outlaw  on  the  deep, 
Destroying,  saving,  prisoned,  and  asleep. — Byron. 

23.  Who  e'er,  amidst  the  sons 
Of  reason,  valor,  liberty,  and  virtue, 
Displays  distinguished  merit,  is  a  noble 
Of  Nature's  own  creating. —  Thomson. 

24.  He  that  attends  to  his  interior  self, 

That  has  a  heart,  and  keeps  it ;  has  a  mind 
That  hungers,  and  supplies  it ;  and  who  seeks 
A  social,  not  a  dissipated  life,  • 

Has  business. — Cowper. 


142  ELEMENTARY   GRAMMAR. 

25.  The  timid  it  concerns  to  ask  their  way, 

And  fear  what  foe  in  caves  and  swamps  may  stay ; 

To  make  no  step  until  the  event  is  known, 

And  ills  to  come,  as  evils  past,  bemoan. 

Not  so  the  wise ;   no  coward  watch  he  keeps, 

To  spy  what  danger  on  his  pathway  creeps. 

Go  where  he  will,  the  wise  man  is  at  home  — 

His  hearth  the  earth,  his  hall  the  azure  dome. — Emerson. 

26.  Every  worm  beneath  the  moon 

Draws  different  threads,  and  late  or  soon 
Spins  toiling  out  his  own  cocoon. —  Tennyson. 

27.  Sweet  is  the  breath  of  morn,  her  rising  sweet. 
With  charm  of  earliest  birds ;   pleasant  the  sun, 
When  first  on  this  delightful  land  he  spreads 
His  orient  beams,  on  herb,  tree,  fruit,  and  flower, 
Glistening  with  dew. — Milton. 

28.  The  day  hath  gone  to  God,— 

Straight — like  an  infant's  spirit,  or  a  mocked 
And  mourning  messenger  of  grace  to  man. — Bailey. 

29.  It  is  a  little  thing  to  speak  a  phrase 

Of  common  comfort,  which,  by  daily  use, 

Has  almost  lost  its  sense ;  yet  on  the  ear 

Of  him  who  thought  to  die  unmourned,  'twill  fall 

Like  choicest  music. —  Talfourd. 

30.  Labor  is  life!     'T  is  the  still  water  faileth  ; 
Idleness  ever  despaireth,  bewaileth ; 

Keep  the  watch  wound,  for  the  dark  rust  assaileth; 
Flowers  droop  and  die  in  the  stillness  of  noon. 

Frances  S.  Osgood. 


QUESTIONS    FOR   REVIEW. 


143 


102.  Questions  for  Review. 


What  is  a  noun  ?  A  common 
noun  ?  A  proper  noun  ?  What 
belong  to  nouns  ? 

What  is  gender  ?  How  many- 
genders  are  there?  What  is  the 
masculine  gender?  The  femi- 
nine gender  ?  The  common  gen- 
der? The  neuter  gender  ?  How 
many  way^  of  distinguishing  the 
masculine  and  feminine  genders? 
Give  them. 

What  is  person  ?  How  many 
persons  are  there  ?    Define  them. 

What  is  number?  How  many 
numbers  are  there  ?  What  is  the 
singular  number?  The  plural 
number?  Repeat  the  rules  for 
the  formation  of  the  plural. 

What  is  case?  How  many 
cases  are  there?  What  is  the 
nominative  case?  The  possess- 
ive case  ?  How  is  the  possessive 
singular  formed  ?  The  possess- 
ive plural  ?  What  is  the  object- 
ive case?  The  absolute  case? 
In  how  many  ways  may  a  noun 
be  in  the  absolute  case? 

What  is  declension  ?  What  is 
parsing?  Eepeat  the  order  of 
parsing  a  noun. 

What  is  a  pronoun?  A  per- 
sonal pronoun?  What  are  the 
simple  personal  pronouns?  The 
compound  personal  pronouns? 
When  pronouns  of  different  per- 


sons are  used,  how  should  they  be 
arranged  ?  Decline  the  personal 
pronouns.  Repeat  the  order  of 
parsing  a  personal  pronoun. 

What  are  the  possessive  pro- 
nouns? How  is  emphatic  dis- 
tinction denoted?  Repeat  the 
order  of  parsing  a  possessive  pro- 
noun. 

What  is  a  relative  pronoun? 
What  are  the  simple  relatives  ? 
The  compound  relatives?  To 
what  is  "what"  equivalent? 
"  Whoever  ?  "  "  Whichever  ?  " 
"Whoso"  and  "Whosoever?" 
Decline  "who"  and  "which". 
What  is  a  relative  clause?  Re- 
peat the  order  of  parsing  a  rel- 
ative pronoun. 

What  are  the  interrogative 
pronouns?  What  is  the  subse- 
quent of  an  interrogative  pro- 
noun? With  what  must  an  in- 
terrogative agree  in  gender,  per- 
son and  number?  Repeat  the 
order  of  parsing  an  interrogative 
pronoun.  Repeat  the  "cautions" 
in  section  57. 

What  is  an  adjective?  A  de- 
scriptive adjective  ?  A  definitive 
adjective  ?  What  is  comparison  ? 
How  many  degrees  are  there? 
What  is  the  positive  degree? 
What  does  the  suffix  iah  denote? 
What  is  the  comparative  degree? 


144 


ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 


How  is  it  regularly  formed  ? 
What  is  the  superlative  degree? 
How  is  it  regularly  formed? 
How  are  some  adjectives  com- 
pared ? 

"What  are  pronominal  adjec- 
tives? Name  some  of  the  prin- 
cipal pronominala.  What  is  said 
of  the  phrases  such  a,  &c.  ?  What 
are  numeral  adjectives  ?  Cardi- 
nal numerals?  Ordinal  numer- 
als? Multiplicative  numerals? 
Repeat  the  order  of  parsing  an 
adjective.  Repeat  the  "cau- 
tions" in  section  62. 

What  is  a  verb?  A  transitive 
verb  ?  An  intransitive  verb  ?  A 
copulative  verb? 

What  is  a  participle?  The 
present  participle  ?  How  does  the 
present  participle  always  end? 
What  is  the  perfect  participle? 
How  does  it  usually  end  ?  What 
is  the  compound  participle? 
How  is  it  formed  ? 

Wliat  belong  to  verbs?  What 
is  voice  ?  How  many  voices  have 
transitive  verbs?  What  is  the 
active  voice?  The  passive  voice? 
Plow  is  the  passive  voice  formed  ? 
How  is  a  verb  in  the  active  voice 
changed  into  the  passive  ? 

What  is  mode?  How  many 
modes  are  there?  Name  them. 
What  is  the  indicative  mode? 
The  subjunctive  mode?  The  po- 
tential mode?  The  imperative 
mode?  The  infinitive  mode? 
W^hat  are  the  signs  of  the  po- 


tential mode?  What  is  the  sign 
of  the  infinitive  mode  ?  When  is 
it  omitted  ? 

What  is  tense?  How  many 
tenses  are  there?  What  is  the 
present  tense  ?  The  present  per- 
fect ?  The  past  ?  The  past  per- 
fect? The  future?  The  future 
perfect?  Give  the  signs  of  the 
tenses. 

What  is  said  of  the  person  and 
number  of  verbs?  W^ith  what 
must  a  verb  agree  in  person  and 
number? 

What  are  auxiliary  verbs? 
Name  them.  Which  of  them  are 
sometimes  used  as  principal 
verbs?  What  is  a  unipersonal 
verb? 

What  is  conjugation?  What 
are  the  principal  parts  of  a  verb? 
What  is  the  synopsis  of  a  verb  ? 
Give  the  synopsis  of  "to  be". 
Of  "to  love",  in  both  voices. 
What  are  the  coordinate  forms 
of  conjugation?  The  progress- 
ive form  ?  The  emphatic  form  ? 
The  interrogative  form?  Give 
the  synopsis  of  each  form. 

What  is  a  regular  verb?  An 
irregular  verb?  A  defective 
verb?  A  redundant  verb?  Re- 
peat the  order  of  parsing  a  verb. 
Repeat  the  "cautions"  in  sec- 
tion 81. 

What  is  an  adverb?  Into  how 
many  classes  can  adverbs  be  di- 
vided?    What  are   adverbs  of 


QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. 


145 


time?  Of  place?  Of  cause? 
Of  manner?  Of  degree?  What 
is  an  adverbial  phrase?  What 
are  conjunctive  adverbs  ?  How 
are  adverbs  compared  ?  Repeat 
the  order  of  parsing  an  adverb. 
Repeat  the  "cautions"  in  sec- 
tion 86. 

What  is  a  preposition?  A 
prepositional  phrase?  Repeat 
tlie  order  of  parsing  a  preposi- 
tion. 

What  is  a  conjunction  ?  Into 
how  many  classes  are  conjunc- 
tions divided  ?  What  are  copu- 
Jative  conjunctions?  Disjunct- 
ive conjunctions?  Correlative 
conjunctions?  Repeat  the  order 
of  parsing  a  conjunction. 

What  is  an  interjection  ?  Re- 
peat the  order  of  parsing  an  in- 
terjection. 

W^hat  is  a  simple  sentence? 
A  compound  sentence?  What 
are  the  parts  of  a  compound  sen- 
tence called  ? 

What  is  a  clause?  A  principal 
clause?  A  subordinate  clause? 
A  complex  sentence?  How  many 
elements  of  a  sentence  may  be 
complex?  How  many  kinds  of 
clauses  are  there  ? 

What  is  the  grammatical  sub- 
ject of  a  proposition  ?  The  logi- 
cal subject?     The  grammatical 


predicate?     The  logical  predi- 
cate? 

What  is  ellipsis  ?  What  parts 
of  speech  may  be  omitted  ? 

How  are  complex  sentences 
changed  into  simple  ones  ? 

What  is  syntax?  What  is  a 
rule  of  syntax  ?  Repeat  the  rule 
for  tlie  subject  of  a  proposition. 
For  a  noun  or  pronoun  used  as 
predicate.  For  the  possessive 
case.  For  the  "  same  case  ".  For 
the  absolute  case.  For  the  ob- 
jective case  after  transitive  verbs. 
For  the  object  of  a  preposition. 
For  nouns  denoting  time,  dis- 
tance, measui-e,  or  value. 

Repeat  the  rule  for  the  gender, 
person,  and  number  of  pronouns. 
For  pronouns  with  two  or  more 
antecedents  connected  by  and. 
Connected  by  or  or  nor. 

Repeat  the  rule  for  adjectives 
and  participles. 

Repeat  the  rule  for  the  num- 
ber and  person  of  verbs.  For 
verbs  with  subjects  connected  by 
and.  Connected  by  or  or  nm: 
For  the  infinitive  used  as  a  noun. 
For  the  infinitive  not  used  as  a 
noun. 

Repeat  the  rule  for  adverbs. 
For  prepositions.  For  conjunc- 
tions.    For  interjections. 


10. 


146  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

PART    IV. 

PUNCTUATION. 

103.  Definition. 

1.  Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  written  dis- 
course into  sentences  and  parts  of  sentences,  by 
means  of  points  or  marks. 

2.  The  principal  marks  used  in  punctuation  are  the 
followina: : 


Comma,  .  .  .  .  , 
Semicolon,  .  .  .  ; 
Colon,  .  .  .  .  : 
Period,  .  .  .  .  . 
Interrogation  Point,  ? 


Exclamation  Point,  ! 

Dash,     ....  — 

Curves,        .     .     .  ( ) 

Brackets,    •     •     •  [  ] 


104.  The  Comma. 

The  Comma  denotes  the  slightest  degree  of  sep- 
aration between  the  parts  of  a  sentence. 

Rule  I.  Two  or  more  nouns,  pronouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  or 
adverbs,  in  the  same  construction,  should  be  separated  by 
commas. 

Ex. — 1.  Spring,  summer,  autumn,  and  winter  are  called  the 
seasons.  2.  You,  he,  and  I  were  boys  together.  3.  David  was  a 
brave,  wise,  and  pious  man.  4.  In  a  letter,  we  may  advise,  ex- 
hort, comfort,  request,  and  discuss.  5.  Success  depends  upon  our 
acting  prudently,  steadily,  and  vigorously. 


PUNCTUATION.  147 

Rnie  II.  The  members  of  a  compound  sentence,  when 
short,  and  connected  by  conjunctions,  should  be  separated  by 
commas. 

Ex. — He  was  not  fond  of  the  technical  language  of  metaphys- 
ics, but  he  had  grappled,  like  the  giant  he  was,  with  its  most  for- 
midable problems. — Everett. 

Rule  III.  Two  correlative  clauses  should  be  separated  by 
commas. 

Ex. — As  in  Adam  all  die,  so  in  Christ  shall  all  be  made  alive. 

Rule  IV.  Each  couplet  of  words  arranged  in  pairs  should 
be  set  off  by  commas. 

Ex. — Sink  or  swim,  live  or  die,  I  give  my  hand  and  my  heart 
to  this  vote. 

Rule  V.  Words  placed  in  opposition  to  each  other  should 
be  separated  by  commas. 

Ex.— Though  deep,  yet  clear;  though  gentle,  yet  not  dull. 

Rem. — This  rule  applies,  also,  to  phrases  and  clauses  placed  in 
opposition  or  antithesis  to  each  other. 

Rale  VI.  When  a  verb  is  omitted,  its  place  is  usually  sup- 
plied by  a  comma. 

Ex. — War  is  the  law  of  violence ;  peace,  the  law  of  love. 

Rale  VII.  Transposed  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  are  usu- 
ally set  off  by  commas. 

Ex. — 1.  Integrity  is,  no  doubt,  the  first  requisite.  2.  Whom  ye 
ignorantly  worship,  Him  declare  I  unto  you. 

Rale  VIII.   Adverbs  used  independently,  or  modifying  an 

entire  proposition,  should  be  set  off  by  commas. 
Ex. — Indeed,  yon  must  wait  awhile. 

Rale  IX.  Nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  absolute  case  by  ple- 
onasm or  direct  address,  should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of 
the  sentence  by  commas. 


148  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

Ex. — 1.  Our  souls,  how  heavily  they  go,  to  reach  immortal 
joys.     2.  Take,  O  boatman,  thrice  thy  fee ! 

Rule  X,  Nouns  in  apposition,  modified  by  other  words  than 
the,  should  be  set  off  by  commas. 

Ex. — The  butterfly,  child  of  the  summer,  flutters  in  the  sun. 

Rom. — Nouns  in  apposition,  introduced  by  or  or  as,  should  be 
eet  off*  by  commas. 

Rule  XI.   A  direct  quotation  should  be  set  off  by  commas. 
Ex. — Quoth  the  raven,  ''Nevermore". 

Rule  xii.  Words  repeated  for  emphasis  should  be  set  off 
by  commas. 

Ex. — Verily,  verily,  I  say  unto  you. 

.   105.  The  Semicolon. 

The    Semieoloii    denotes    a    degree   of    separation 

greater  than  that  denoted  by  the  comma. 

Rule  I.  The  semicolon  should  be  used  before  as.  namely,  &c., 
introducing  an  example  or  an  illustration. 

Ex. — There  are  four  seasons ;  namely,  spring,  summer,  autumn, 
and  winter. 

Rule  II.  Clauses  having  a  common  dependence  should  be 
separated  by  semicolons. 

Ex. — Experience  teaches  us,  that  an  entire  retreat  from  wordly 
affairs  is  not  what  religion  requires ;  nor  does  it  even  enjoin  a  long 
retreat  from  them. 

Rule  III.  Semicolons  should  separate  the  members  of  com- 
pound sentences,  if  the  connective  is  omitted,  or  if  their  parts 
are  separated  by  commas. 

Es. — 1.  Straws  swim  upon  the  surface;  pearls  lie  at  the  bot- 
tom.    2.   Philosophers   assert,   that    nature    is    unlimited    in   her 


PUNCTUATION.  149 

operations;  tliat  she  has  inexhaustible  treasures  In  reserve;  that 
knowledge  will  always  be  progressive;  and  that  all  future  gen- 
erations  will  continue  to  make  discoveries,  of  which  we  have  not 
the  least  idea. 

106.  The  Colon. 

The  Colon  denotes  a  degree  of  separation  greater 
than  that  indicated  by  the  semicolon. 

Rule  I.  The  colon  should  precede  an  example  or  a  lengthy- 
quotation,  and  follow  the  introduction  to  a  speech. 

Ex. — The  Scriptures  give  us  an  amiable  representation  of  the 
Deity  in  these  words:  "God  is  love". 

Rule  II.  The  members  of  a  compound  sentence,  whose  parts 
are  set  off  by  semicolons,  should  be  separated  by  colons. 

Ex. — We  do  not  say  that  his  error  lies  in  being  a  good  mem- 
ber of  society;  this,  though  only  a  circumstance  at  present,  is  a 
very  fortunate  one :  the  error  lies  in  his  having  discarded  the 
authority  of  God  as  his  legislator;  or,  rather,  in  his  not  having 
admitted  the  influence  of  that  authority  over  his  mind,  heart,  or 
practice. 

107.  The  Period. 

The  Period  denotes  the  greatest  degree  of  sep- 
aration. 

Rnle  I.  The  period  should  be  placed  at  the  end  of  a 
declarative  or  imperative  sentence. 

Ex. — 1.  Evil  communications  corrupt  good  manners.  2.  Walk 
quietly. 

Rule  II.  The  period  should  be  used  after  every  abbrevi- 
ated word. 

Ex.— H.  G.  Lloyd,  Esq.;  Mich.,  Ind.,  111.;  P.s.  Ixxv,  6,  7: 
Chap.  XIV. 


150  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

108.  Interrogation  Point. 

The  Interrogation  Point  denotes  that  a  question 
is  asked. 

Kx. — 1.  Where  is  Singapore?    2.  Do  you  own  this  farm? 

109.  Exclamation  Point. 

The  Exclamation  Point  denotes  passion  or  emo- 
tion. 

Rule  I.  The  exclamation  point  should  be  placed  after  ex- 
pressions denoting  strong  emotion. 

Ex. — Alas,  poor  Yorick  !      Fie  on  you  ! 

110.  The  Dash. 

The  Dash  is  a  straight,  horizontal  line,  placed  be- 
tween the  parts  of  a  sentence. 

Rnle  I.  The  dash  should  be  used  where  a  sentence  breaks 
off  abruptly,  or  where  there  is  a  change  in  its  meaning  or 
construction. 

Ex. — Dim — dim  —  I  faint — darkness  comes  over  me.  ^  2.  If 
thou  art  he,  so  much  respected  once — but  oh!  how  fallen!  how 
degraded ! 

Rule  II.  The  dash  is  frequently  used  before  and  after  a 
parenthesis. 

Ex. — They  see  three  of  the  cardinal  virtues  of  dog  or  man — 
courage,  endurance,  and  skill — in  intense  action. 

Rem. — The  dash  is  frequently  used  where  there  is  an  omission 
of  letters  or  figures;  as,  L — d  N — h;  i.  e,  Lord  North:  Ps.  xxxv, 
6—10;  t.e.,  Ps.  xxxv,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10. 


PUNCTUATION.  151 


111.  The  Curves. 

The  Curves  include  an  expression  which  has  no 
necessary  connection,  in  sense  or  construction,  with 
the  sentence  in  which  it  is  inserted. 

Rale  I.  The  curves  should  include  those  words  which  may 
be  omitted  without  injury  to  the  sense. 

Ex. — Know,  then,  this  truth  (enough  for  man  to  know), 
Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below.— Pojoe. 

Rem. — The  curves  sometimes  include  letters  or  figures  used  to 
enumerate  subjects  or  divisions  of  a  subject,  as,  "(a)  What  it 
does ;    ( 6 )  What  it  is." 

112.  The  Brackets. 

Brackets  are  used  to  include  words,  phrases,  or 
clauses  explaining  what  precedes  them,  or  correcting 
an  error. 

Ex. — 1.  They  [the  Indians]  are  fast  disappearing.  2.  I  dit- 
fer  with  [from]  you  in  opinion. 


113.  Other  Marks  iised  in  Writing. 

I.  The  Apostrophe  [ '  ]  is  used  to  denote  the  omission  of 
one  or  more  letters,  or  to  mark  the  possessive  case ;  as, 
"You're  mistaken";   "The  Queen's  English". 

II.  The  Hyphen  [  -  ]  is  used  ( 1 )  to  join  the  parts  of  com- 
pound words  and  expressions;  (2)  to  divide  words  into  syl- 
lables ;  ( 3 )  after  a  syllable  at  the  end  of  a  line,  when  the  rest 
of  the  word  is  carried  to  the  next  line ;  as,  "  Nut-brown  maid: '' 
"con-fu-sion". 


152  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

III.  Quotation  Marks  [  *"  "  ]  are  used  to  show  that  a 
passage  is  taken  verbatim  from  some  author;  as,  ''Shakspeare 
says,  'All  the  world's  a  stage' ". 

IV.  The  Index  [jg^°^]  and  Asterism  [  *^*  ]  point  out  a 
passage  to  which  special  attention  is  called ;  as,  "  J8@**  Be  punc- 
tual in  your  attendance  at  school". 

V.  The  Asterisk  [*],  the  Obelisk  or  Dag^ger  [  f  ],  the 
Double    Da$?g:er  [  +  ],  the  Section    [  ^  ],    the   Parallels  [  ||  ], 

and  the  Parag:rapli  [H],  refer  to  notes  in  the  margin,  or  at 
the  bottom  of  the  page. 

VI.  The  Brace  [  — ^— ^  ]  connects  a  number  of  words  with, 
a  common  term. 

VII.  The  Paragraph  [  ^  ]  denotes  the  beginning  of  a  new 
subject. 

VIII.  The  Section  [  |  ]  denotes  the  divisions  of  a  treatise. 

IX.  The  Caret  [  ^  ]  is  used  in  writing  to  show  that  some- 
thing has  been  omitted. 

a  not  countries 

Ex. — The  sesons  are  alike  in  all  of  the  same  region. 

A  A  A 

X.  The  Tilde  [  n  ]  annexes  to  n  the  sound  of  y ;  as,  canon, 
pronounced  canyon:  the  Cedilla  f  §  ]  gives  to  c  the  sound  of  s; 
Sis,fagade:  the  Macron  [-]  marks  a  long  sound,  as  in  tone: 
the  Breve  [^] ,  a  short  sound,  as  in  ndi:  the  Dieresis  [••]  sep- 
arates two  vowels  into  two  syllables ;  as,  aeriform. 

XI.  The  Acute  Accent  [  ^  ]  commonly  denotes  a  sharp 
sound ;  the  Orave  Accent  [ '"  ],  a  depressed  sound ;  the  Cir- 
cumflex Accent  [  ' "  or  "^  ],  a  broad  sound. 

Rem.— In  most  reading  books,  the  aetde  accent  denotes  the 
rising  inflection;  the  grave  accent,  the  falling  inflection;  the  cir- 
cumjlex,  a  union  of  the  acute  and  the  grave. 


PUNCTUATION.  153 

Sagg^estion  to  Teachers. — Require  pupils  to  give  rules  for 
the  use  of  all  the  points  found  in  their  reading  lesson.  Select 
passages  from  good  authors,  and  pronounce  the  words  in  consecu- 
tive order,  as  in  a  spelling  lesson,  without  indicating  the  gram- 
matical construction  by  tone  of  voice  or  inflections.  Let  the  pupils 
write  these  as  pronounced,  and  separate  them  into  sentences  and 
parts  of  sentences  by  the  proper  points. 

Punctuate  properly  the  following  example,  and  observe  the  rules 
for  the  use  of  capitals: 

his  personal  appearance  contributed  to  the  attraction  of  his 
social  intercourse  his  countenance  frame  expression  and  pres- 
ence arrested  and  fixed  attention  you  could  not  pass  him 
unnoticed  in  a  crowd  nor  fail  to  observe  in  him  a  man  of  high 
mark  and  character  no  one  could  see  him  and  not  wish  to  see 
more  of  him  and  this  alike  in  public  and  private. 

edward  everett. 


Questions. — What  is  punctuation  ?  What  are  the  principal 
marks  used  in  punctuation? 

What  does  the  comma  denote?  Repeat  the  rules  for  the  use 
of  the  comma. 

What  does  the  semicolon  denote?     Repeat  the  rules  for  its  use. 

W^hat  does  the  colon  denote  ?     Repeat  the  rules  for  its  use. 

What  does  the  period  denote?     Repeat  the  rules  for  its  use. 

What  does  the  interrogation  point  denote? 

What  does  the  exclamation  point  denote?  Repeat  the  rule  for 
its  use. 

What  is  the  dash?     Repeat  the  rules  for  its  use. 

What  are  the  curves  ?     What  should  they  include  ? 

What  are  the  brackets  used  to  include? 

What  does  the  apostrophe  denote?  For  what  purposes  is  the 
hyphen  used?  The  quotation  marks?  The  index  and  asterism? 
The  asterisk,  &c.?  What  does  the  brace  connect?  What  does  the 
paragraph  denote  ?     The  section  ? 

For  what  purpose  is  the  caret  used?  What  does  the  tilde  de- 
note? The  cedilla?  The  macron?  The  breve?  The  dieresis? 
What  does  the  acute  accent  denote?  The  grave  accent?  The  cir- 
cumflex accent?     What  do  these  denote  in  most  reading  books? 


154  ELEMENTARY   GRAMMAR. 

I 

PART  V. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

114.  Sounds— Letters. 

When  we  speak,  we  use  sounds  made  by  the  voice.  These 
sounds  are  called  Elementary  Sounds. 

1.  An  Elementary  ^tind  is  one  which  can  not  be 
separated  into  two  or  more  distinct  sounds. 

When  we  write,  we  represent  these  sounds  by  letters. 

2.  A  tetter  is  a  character  used  to  represent  an 
elementary  sound,  or  a  combination  of  elementary 
sounds  ;  as,  a,  x. 

115.  Elementjiry  Sounds. 

1.  There  are  forty  elementary  sounds  in  the  English  lan- 
guage.    They  are  divided  into  Vowels  and  Consonants. 

2.  Vowels,  or  Vocals,  are  those  sounds  which  are 
made  with  the  vocal  organs  open.  They  are  also 
called  Tonics. 

3.  Consonants  are  obstructed  sounds,  or  mere 
emissions  of  breath.  They  are  subdivided  into  Suh- 
vocals  and  Aspirates. 

4.  Snbvoeals  are  those  sounds  which  are  obstructed 
by  the  vocal  organs,  in  the  process  of  articulation. 
They  are  also  called  Suhtonics. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


155 


5.   Aspirates  are  mere  emissions  of  breath.     They 
are  also  called  Atonies. 


116.  Table  of  Elementary  Sounds. 


a  long,      as  in 

a  short,  " 

a  middle,  " 

A  Italian,  " 

a  broad,  *' 

e  long, 

e  short,  " 


Vowels. 


hate. 

hat. 

ask. 

arm. 

all. 

eve. 

ell. 


i 

long,   as  in 

, 

i 

short,      " 

o 

long,       " 

o 

short,      " 

. 

oo 

long,      " 

. 

oo 

short,      " 

. 

n 

long,       " 

. 

n 

short,      " 

. 

time. 

tin. 

cold. 

hot. 

ooze. 

book. 

lute. 

cup. 


Consonants. 


Subvocals. 


fh, 

J, 

«,   . 

1, 

n, 
"ST, 

S, 

y. 


bib. 

save. 

way. 

am. 

lid. 

with. 

jar. 

size. 

azure. 

lull. 

roar. 

man. 

song. 

nag. 

yes. 


Aspirates. 


p,     as  in  .     .     .     . 

f,         "  .... 
wh,    " 

Has  no  corresponding 

f,     as  in  ...     . 

th,      "  .... 
ch,      " 

»,  .... 

8h,*     "  .        .       .       . 

Has  no  corresponding 


k,    as  in     .     .     .     . 
Has  no  corresponding 


h,     as  m 


lip. 

life. 

when, 
aspirate. 

tat. 

myth. 

church. 

hiss. 

hush, 
aspirate. 


kick. 

aspirate. 

how. 


156  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

117.  Letters. 

1.  There  are  twenty-six  letters  in  the  English  al- 
phabet. They  are  used  as  either  capital  letters  or  as 
small  letters. 

Rem. — Printers  call  small  letters  lower-case. 

2.  Two  or  more  letters  are  sometimes  joined  to 
represent  one  or  more  sounds. 

3.  A  Dipiitiion^  consists  of  two  vowels  sounded  together 
in  the  same  syllable;  as,  ou,  foul;  oi,  boil. 

4.  A  Digraph  consists  of  two  vowel  letters  written  to- 
gether in  the  same  syllable,  one  only  being  pronounced,  or 
both  representing  a  single  elementary  sound ;  as,  aa,  Canaan ; 
ai,  gain. 

5.  A  Trig:raph  consists  of  three  vowel  letters  written  to- 
gether in  the  same  syllable,  one  only  being  pronounced,  or 
the  three  together  representing  a  single  vowel  sound,  or  diph- 
thong; as,  aye,  aye;  awe,  awe 

6.  A  Double  Consonant  consists  of  two  consonant  letters 
written  together  in  the  same  syllable,  representing  a  single 
elementary  sound ;  as,  ch,  chord ;  gh,  laugh. 

7.  A  Silent  Letter  is  one  which  represents  no  sound;  as, 
e  in  the  word  mute. 

118.  Capital  LetteiN,  Italics,  &c. 

I,  The  first  word  of  every  sentence  should  begin 
■with  a  capital  letter. 

Rem. — The  word  "that",  commencing  a  sentence  which 
follows  an  introductory  word  or  clause,  often  begins  with  a 
capital  letter;  as,  ^'Resolved,  That  section  fourteen,  &c." 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  157 

II.  The  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry  should 
begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

III.  Proper  names  of  persons,  places,  days,  &c., 
should  begin  with  capital  letters. 

IV.  Titles  of  honor  or  distinction  should  begin  with 
capital  letters. 

V.  All  appellations  of  the  Deity  should  begin  with 
capital  letters. 

Rem. — Words  used  as  substitutes  for  the  name  of  the  Deity 
sometimes  begin  with  capitals;  as,  "The  Hand  that  made  us 
is  divine". 

VI.  Words  denoting  the  race  or  nation  of  individ- 
uals should  begin  with  capital  letters. 

VII.  Words  derived  from  proper  names  should  be- 
gin with  capital  letters. 

Rem. — When  such  words  become  common  nouns,  they 
should  not  begin  with  capital  letters ;  as,  a  guinea;  china- 
ware. 

A^III.  Words  of  special  importance  may  begin  with 
capital  letters. 

Rem. -Common  words  used  as  names  of  particular  objects 
become  words  of  special  importance,  and  should  begin  with 
capitals;  as,  the  Garden  City;  Big  Creek;  the  City  of  Brotherly 
Love;  "Have  you  visited  the  Round  Tower f" 

IX.  I  and  0,  used  as  single  words,  should  be  capitals. 

X.  Emphatic  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  are  fre- 
quently printed  in  italics. 

Rem.  1. — Words  requiring  special  emphasis  are  often 
printed  in  small  capitals  or  capitals. 


158  ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 

Rem.  2. — Italicized  words  in  the  Bible  are  those  supplied 
by  translators  to  explain  the  original. 

Rem.  3. — In  manuscripts,  one  line  drawn  under  a  word 
indicates  italics;  two  lines,  SMALL  capitals;  three  lines, 
CAPITALS.  ^ 

Exercises  to  be  Corrected. 

1. — the  mornings  are  chilly,  sugar  is  sweet,  rainy  weather 
is  unpleasant,  the  snow  was  more  than  eight  inches  deep, 
hundreds  of  birds  were  singing  in  the  park. 

2. — The  day  is  past  and  gone ; 

the  evening  shades  appear. 
o  may  we  all  remember  well 
the  night  of  death  is  near. 

3. — edwin  and  james  went  to  Chicago  last  may.  The  legis- 
lature meets  on  the  first  monday  in  January.  Mr.  smith  left 
new  york  on  Saturday  the  22d  of  may. 

4. — Eli  Hughes,  esq.;  Alexander  the  great;  George  the 
third ;  earl  Russell ;  gen.  Scott.  Eli  french,  esq.  argued  the 
case  for  the  defendant  before  judge  Lynch. 

5. — Remember  thy  creator.  The  lord  shall  endure  forever. 
"I  am  the  way,  the  truth,  the  life."  God  spake  these  words, 
and  said :  I  am  the  lord  thy  god. 

6. — The  french ;  the  mexicans ;  the  americans.  "  The  gyp- 
sies wander  about  from  place  to  place."  The  Spaniards  were 
the  first  european  nation  that  established  colonies  in  america. 

7. — A  russian  serf;  an  Italian  sunset;  an  african  sun;  a 
Canadian  winter,  the  foliage  of  austral ian  trees  is  remark- 
able, the  Prussian  army  was  provided  with  the  best  fire-arms, 
the  commander  of  the  russian  forces  was  wounded. 

8.— The  tariff  bill;  the  Missouri  compromise;  the  whisky 


ORTHOGRAPHY 


159 


insurrection.     "I  have  just  read  'homes  without  hands'  and 
'  the  world  before  the  deluge '." 

9. — i  can  't  remember  these  rules,  o,  how  i  wish  school 
was  out.  there  isn't  any  fun  in  sitting  still  all  day.  let's 
run  away  and  see  the  circus  come  into  town. 


119.  Syllables-Words. 

1.  A  Siyllable  is  a  sound  or  combination  of  sounds 
uttered  with  one  impulse  of  the  voice;  as,  man, 
man-ner. 

Rem.  1. — Every  syllable  must  contain  a  vowel. 

Rem.  2. — A  syllable  is  analyzed  by  giving  the  sound  repre- 
sented by  each  letter,  except  those  which  are  silent. 

2.  A  Word  may  consist  of  one  or  more  syllables. 

A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  monosyllable ;  as,  care,  man. 

A  word  of  two  syllables  is  called  a  dissyllable;  as,  care-ful, 
man-ly. 

A  word  of  three  syllables  is  called  a  trisyllable;  as,  care-ful- 
ness, man-li-ness. 

A  word  oi  four  or  more  syllables  is  called  a  polysyllable;  as, 
com-pla-cen-cy ,  ec-cen-tric-i-fy. 

3.  A  Primitive  or  Radical  word  is  one  in  no  way  derived 
from  another  in  the  same  language ;  as,  mind,  faith. 

4.  A  Derivative  word  is  one  formed  by  joining  to  a  prim- 
itive some  letter  or  syllable  to  modify  its  meaning;  as,  re- 
mind, faith-/M/. 

5.  A  Compound  word  is  one  formed  by  imiting  two  or 
more  primitive  or  derivative  words;  as,  man-worship,  Anglo- 
Saxon. 


lecfc 


ELEMENTARY    GRAMMAR. 


*^^re§( 


\yi:*d  which' 


IS 


i 


wjiiqh 


A  Prefix  is  that  part  of  a  derivative 
d  before  the  radical;  as,  re.-ca^,^ib-iom, 

7.   A  iSuflix   is   that   part,  ot  a  d«ri\i;ative 
placed  after  the  radical;  ai^,'faith^^^^ch4nge-a6/fe7> 

;^    8.   Spelling  is  the  aj:tf)f  forming  words  by  arf^R^g  llieii 
•letters  in  due  order.        .4  '.     *  -    ^  ^-'r. :_,      . 

The   proper  way  of  spelling  words. isi^obes^-^rned  from 
i  spelling-books  and  dictionaries.  -    .vr .  ; 


at  are^sii 


^ . ,  Questions.^ What  is  an  elementary  lo 
*  many  elementary  sotinds  are  there  in  the  Englis  ^ 
are  they  divii^ed?     What  are  vovvels?-  Wiiat  iire" 
'  What  are  cor^onants?    How  are  they  silHbdivide 
5^cals?     Wimt  are  tblly^alsp  called?     What  are  aspira 
are  they  also  called  ?       *       v>':.ii^ 

How  manv 
th*ig?    Ad 

letter?  '  '    ;  ^  ; 

the  nse  of  capi,tlil  let' 

hat' 'iKti^':,ev!bry  svj laI)le^,cQntain  ? 
is  a  syllable.  analyz«l?^Whaty^;aittohosy]IableT  A  dissy 
A  trisyllable?     A  \)olvs™fbt^r   What  is  a  primitive  word? 


)  called?       ♦        <^   wT    V  .  \sjrW'     "**  -    ■  > 

ly  letters  4n  the  l:n|lis1f*^l^T!!i(y?  •   Wh'at  fs  a  di]>b- 

igraph  ?  .  M  trigraph  ?    4.  doub|Je^^^"r|^i^."^  ^  ^lei^ 

Kepeat  the  rules-  &§  the 
W^hat  is  -a  syllable^   W 


\  polysjmlibt^r   What  is  a  pri 


as     J  derivative   word?     A'  compourid 


%# 


■  •   **'^'  \  ^^"^^  '^^  spelling?  , 


4- 


d?     A 'prefix?     A^suffij 


^t. 


oar 


^«4*C^S0tvft 


J 


l,-7<^ff 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CAIvlFORNIA  IvIBRARY 


Ray's  New  ArithineticR#illg6l)ras. 

Practical  Utility  combined  with  Scientific  Accuracy;  the 
Best  Methorfs  with  all  real  Improvenents. 

Ray's  ]>jew  I»rimar>  AHtlimetie, 
Ray»s  Xew  Intellectual  Arithmetic, 
Ray's  ]>Jew  Practical  Aritlimetic, 
Ray's  JSfew  Ilis:liei  Arithmetic. 

TWO-BOOK    SERTES: 
Ray's  New  Elementary  Arithmetic, 
Ray's  I^ew  Ifractical  Arithmetic. 

Ray's  New  Elemeiitary  Al§:ebra, 
Ray's  T!^ew  Higfher  Algebra. 

I.  The  analytic  solutions  and  written  ofx  i-ations  ha . 
carefully  separated, 

II.  All  obsolete  tables  of  weights   aiu;    ,m.-„mw 
obsolete  denominations  are  discarded. 

III.  The  Metric  System  of  Weights,0.d  Measures  i.  pre- 
sented m  accord,^nce  with  its  now  widelf' --tended  usage,  and 
's  assigned  to  its  proper  plr    -.  immediately  after  Decimals. 

IV.  The  subject  of  Per  .utage  is  much  expanded,  ^uid  : 
urnerous  applications  systematized.  Mnny  nov  1  and  int' 
■::nz  fk'Uures  nre  i7ii-r.rl'  .  ,vl  fV^.-  fir .     .^^  .;,,..  •.    ,--  , 

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le  careful  attention   ■  '...ri  \\^W  imporuince  demands. 
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!dent  to  the   new  forms  of  Gnvernmpnf    P.oprU   .,.h  ^.u.  .. 
securities,  Coins,  etc. 

VII    Tlie  typography  i.   ,cw  nd  ihc  bmdin 

ta.refui  and  sub    antial. 

Ray's  Arithmetics  have  a  more  extenoed  use  and  a  more 
wide-spread  popularity  than  any  other  series.  More  than  ten 
'-ousand  editions  of  these  books  have  gone  forth  from  the 


-rcss  "^ 


VAN  ANTWERP,  BRASS  &  GO.,  EINglNNATI  &  NEW  W 

Publishers  of  the  Eclectic  Educational  Series. 


